1. Chapter 13 Corrections: History, Institutions, and Populations

2. The History of Correctional Institutions
Prisons: state or federal correctional institution for incarceration of felony offenders for terms of one year or more
Jails: place to confine convicted misdemeanants serving less than one year or to hold people awaiting trial

3. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Incarceration did not become the norm until 19th century
Institutions constructed in England during the 10th century were used to detain debtors, unemployed, or those awaiting trial and punishment
First penal institutions were foul places devoid of proper care, food, or medical treatment; many were run as private prisons
In the 18th century hulks (mothballed, de-masted ships) were used to house prisoners in England, while awaiting transportation to colonies or execution
Hulks had high death rates from disease and malnutrition
Conditions in hulks lead to the creation of reform organizations in England (e.g., John Howard League)

4. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
American developments
First American jail built in James City, VA
Confinement of liberty were often public (stocks, whipping posts)
Modern American correctional system had its origin in Pennsylvania under leadership of William Penn (who was a Quaker)

5. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Quaker influence
Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons began focus on humane and orderly treatment
Influence on legislature resulted in limiting the use of the death penalty
Walnut Street Jail
Penitentiary house
Basic policy: do penance, realize that you have sinned

6. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Auburn system
In 1816 New York built a new prison in Auburn hoping to alleviate overcrowding at other holding facilities
Tier system, because cells were built vertically on five floors
Also known as the congregate system
Three classes of prisoners were created:
Those in solitary
Those allowed labor as a form of recreation
Those who worked and ate together during the day and separated at night (largest class)

7. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Pennsylvania system
Placed each inmate in a single cell
Classifications were abolished because isolation would prevent inmates from contaminating each other
Built in a circle with cells placed along its circumference
The panopticon, Jeremy Bentham
Designed as a place for prisoners to do penance

8. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Prisons at the turn of the century
Prisons of the late 19th century were remarkably similar to those of today.
Development of prison industry
Contract system
Convict-lease system
Prisons farms

9. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Reform movements
1870 National Congress of Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline began new era of prison reform
Zebulon Brockway, Elmira Reformatory, advocated individualized treatment, indeterminate sentences, and parole
Brockway’s achievements were limited although he did introduce a degree of humanitarianism into prisons
Regimes and treatment options were based on stereotypes of criminals (e.g., Italians were natural criminals; eugenics; social hygiene)
Elmira became a model for other states

10. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Creation of parole
1850’s Walter Crofton created forerunner of parole in Ireland
Inmates spent last portion of their sentences living in intermediate institution and working in outside community
Crofton’s success led to creation of similar programs in United States
Focused on transition back into society

11. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Prisons at the turn of the twentieth century
Time of contrast in the U.S. prison system
Advocation of reform, rehabilitation, education, religion
Conservatives opposed to reform believed in stern disciplinary measures
Ultimately many reforms would be implemented

12. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Development of specialized prisons
Industrial prisons for hard-core inmates
Agricultural prisons for nondangerous offenders
Institutions for criminally insane
Opposition by organized labor restricts the use of prison labor and sale of prison made goods

13. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Numbers:
About 1.3 million in prison, about 670,00 in jail (2005)
Costs: about 28,00 year for young adults rising to about 70,00 for older prisoners (health care, etc) and juveniles
About 720,000 employees in the prison/jail system

14. The History of Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Contemporary correctional trends
Prisoners’ rights movement
Violence within the corrections system became a national concern
View that traditional correctional rehabilitation efforts have failed prompted reconsideration of incapacitating criminals
From rehabilitation to punishment and incapacitation

15. Jails Five purposes Detain accused offenders who cannot make bail
Hold convicted offenders awaiting sentence
Principal institution of confinement for those convicted of misdemeanors
Hold probationers and parolees arrested for violations and waiting for a hearing
House felons when state prisons are overcrowded

16. Jails (cont.) About 600,000 offenders are being held in jails today
Number has risen significantly since 1990 even though crime rate has trended downward
Almost 90 percent are males
Poor, racial, and ethnic minorities are overrepresented

17. Who Is in Jail, by Race and Ethnicity?

18. Jails (cont.) Jail conditions
Usually low priority item in the criminal justice system run by county officials
No unified national policy on what constitutes adequate conditions
Among the most dilapidated and under funded confinement facilities in the USA
Administered by local police, sheriffs
Current movement to remove people from jails through bail reform and pretrial diversion

19. Jails (cont.) Jail overcrowding
Prison overcrowding forces officials to use local jails to house inmates
Mandatory jail sentences for drunk driving
Crackdown on substance abuse
Mandatory arrest policies for domestic violence

20. Jails (cont.) New generation jails
Modern design to improve effectiveness
Use of pods or living areas rather than linear/intermittent surveillance model of traditional jails
Allow for continuous observation of residents
Believed to result in safer environment for staff and inmates
Seeks to involve inmates in controlling each other

21. Prisons Types of prisons
Maximum-Security: houses dangerous felons, strict security, high walls, limited contact with outside world
Super-Maximum Security: used to incapacitate most dangerous felons with 23 hour day lockdown
Medium-Security: less secure institution to house nonviolent offenders and provides more contact with outside world
Minimum-Security: houses white collar and nonviolent offenders, few security measures, liberal furlough and visitation policy

22. Alternative Correctional Institutions
Prison farms and camps
Found primarily in the South and the West
Prisoners on farms produce dairy products, grain, and crops
Forestry Camp inmates maintain state parks, fight forest fires, and do reforestation work
Some famous for abuses and mistreatment of prisoners (Angola, Tucker Farm)

23. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Shock incarceration in boot camps
Typically for youthful, first-time offenders
Military discipline and physical training
Short periods of high intensity exercise will shock the inmate into going straight; “scared straight”
Some have educational and training elements

24. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Evaluating shock incarceration
Cost is no lower than traditional incarceration
High failure rates
Doris Layton Mackenzie
Reduce prison overcrowding

25. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Community correctional facilities
Bridge the gap between institutional living and the community
Offer specialized treatment
Used as intermediate sanction
Halfway houses

26. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Private prison enterprise
Percy Amendment (1979)
State-use model
Free-enterprise model
Generally limited to few experimental programs

27. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Private prisons
Prisons operated by private firms as business enterprises; run for profit
Expectations specified in contract with government
In some instances private company builds the prison and leases it back to the government allowing state to avoid the difficulty of getting voters to approve bond issues.
Some companies contract to provide specific services in an institution such as medical or food services
(2006) 264 prisons, hold about 95,000 prisoners

28. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Evaluating private prisons
Some research shows recidivism rates lower for private than state-operated prisons
But “Creaming” – tend to take the best prisoners
Private and public prisons cost about the same to operate, but privates are cheaper to build

29. Alternative Correctional Institutions (cont.)
Concerns over profit-driven decisions by private prisons
Quality and training of personnel; provision of services (food, medical, treatment) as cheaply as legally allowed
Unresolved legal issues: mistreatment of prisoners, use of deadly force and immunity from lawsuits
Effects on inmates:
Often sent far away from home, families cannot visit, isolation and difficulty of reintegration

30. Correctional Populations
Reflects common traits of arrestees held in local jails: young, single, poorly educated, male, and minority group members.
Number of women incarcerated is increasing at a faster rate than males
Many inmates suffer from multiple social, psychological, emotional, and health problems
Prison populations continue to increase despite a decade long drop in the crime rate

31. Prison and Jail Population Trends

32. Correctional Populations
Some numbers for prisons:
About 640/100,000 (2005) – highest ratio in the world
Female rate: 60/100,000; Male rate: 906/100,000
Race/ethnicity rates:
White: 450/100,000;
Black: 3,437/100,000
Hispanic: 1,176/100,000
Offenses committed: about 45 percent violent; about 15 percent property; about 15 percent drugs; about 9 percent public order offenses

33. Correctional Populations
Corrections and race, ethnicity, and gender
Prison experience (2001):
5.6 million adults have been in prison
Blacks: 17% of adults; Hispanics 7.7%; Whites: 2.6%
Men: 11.3%; women: 1.8%
Life rates: chances of being in prison during life for adults
These are projected numbers from current practices
Blacks: 1 in 3 will experience prison
Hispanics: 1 in 6;
Whites: 1 in 17

34. Correctional Populations (cont.)
Explaining population trends
Legislation fueled by public concern about drugs and violent crime
A large proportion of new admissions are for drug offenses
Use of mandatory sentences
Truth in sentencing laws result in longer prison stays
Policy decisions driven by political concerns