1. Models of Communication: communicative competence (monocultural) & the training of communicative skills
Seminar: The training of cross-cultural competence and skills
Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Beneke
Speaker: Antje Stillahn
Date: 6 November 2001

2. Contents 1. Models of Communication
What is communication?
What is communicative competence?
2. The Training of Communicative Skills
(based on Schulz von Thun’s model)
3. Moving towards Intercultural Communication
(discussion)

3. 1. Models of Communication
What is communication?
What is communicative competence?

4. A Definition
“communication [Lat. communicatio ‘the action of imparting‘]
In its broadest sense, this term refers to every kind of mutual transmission of information using signs or symbols between living beings (humans, animals), between people and data-processing machines. [...]”
(Bussmann 1996:83)

5. A Definition (continued)
“In its narrower, linguistic sense, communication is the understanding which occurs between humans through linguistic and non-linguistic means like gestures, mimicry and voice ( non-verbal communication). The basic components of communication are shown in communication models. [...]”
(Bussmann 1996:83)

6. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

7. Aristotle’s Rhetoric Three elements of communication: the speaker
the speech
the audience (

8. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick‘s, Beavin‘s, and Jackson‘s Model
Schulz von Thun‘s Model

9. De Saussure’s Model of the Speech Circuit (1916)
Phonation
Audition
c i
c: concept i: image acoustique (acoustic image)
c i
Phonation
Audition (

10. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

11. The Shannon-Weaver Model (1949)
received signal
message
signal
message
information source
transmitter
receiver
destination
channel
noise source (

12. The Shannon-Weaver Model – Criticism
the ‘conduit metaphor’ (Reddy 1979)
linearity
content and meaning
instrumentalism
context
relationships and purposes
time
medium
(cf.

13. The Shannon-Weaver Model – Extension
information source
transmitter
receiver
destination
channel
noise source
feedback
(cf.

14. The Shannon-Weaver Model – Extension by Moles (1963)
information source
transmitter
receiver
destination
channel
noise source
code 1
code 2 (

15. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

16. Gerbner’s General Model (1956)
PERCEPTUAL DIMENSION M
Selection Context Availability
E Event E1
Source
Channels Media Control
MEANS AND CONTROL DIMENSION
Destination M2
S Form
E Con- tent
SE1
(cf. Gerbner 1956, in: Corner; Hawthorn (eds.) 1989:18)

17. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

18. Bühler’s Organon Model (1934)
Objects and States of Affairs
Representation
Expression S
Receiver
Sender
Appeal (

19. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions (1960)
Type Oriented Function Example towards
emotive addresser expressing It’s bloody feelings or pissing down attitudes again!
referential context imparting It’s raining information
conative addressee influencing Wait here till it behaviour stops raining!
(cf.

20. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions (1960)
Type Oriented Function Example towards
phatic contact establishing or Nasty weather maintaining again, isn’t it? social relationships
metalingual code referring to the This is the nature of the weather interaction forecast.
poetic message foregrounding It droppeth as textual features the gentle rain from heaven. (

21. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

22. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967): Pragmatics of Human Communication
One cannot not communicate. (Watzlawick and others 1967:51)
Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect such that the latter classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication.(Watzlawick and others 1967:54)

23. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels
Is that a real diamond
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:256)

24. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:25/)

25. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels
It’s nice to see Mary...
CONTENT
RELATIONSHIP
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

26. Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels
analytical thinking, words
CONTENT
RELATIONSHIP
older parts of the brain: emotions
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

27. Information about this information verbal, nonverbal; context
Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) – Content and Relationship Levels
Information
Information about this information verbal, nonverbal; context
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:259)

28. Models of Communication
Aristotle‘s Rhetoric
De Saussure‘s Model of the Speech Circuit
Shannon‘s and Weaver‘s Model
Gerbner‘s General Model
Bühler‘s and Jakobson‘s Models
Watzlawick’s, Beavin’s, and Jackson’s Model
Schulz von Thun’s Model

29. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message
Content
Self- dis- closure
Sender
Message
Appeal
Receiver
////////////////////////////////
Relationship
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:30)

30. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message
The traffic light is green.
THE TRAFFIC LIGHT IS GREEN
Put your foot down!
I’m in a hurry.
//////////////////////////
You need my help!
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:31)

31. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Three Aspects of a Non-verbal Message
Please comfort me!
I am sad.
//////////////////////////
You hurt me!
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:34)

32. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Three Aspects of a Non-verbal Message
Please go on talking.
I am listening.
saying nothing
//////////////////////////
Your ideas are interesting.
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:35)

33. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Receiving with Four Ears
What kind of person is he?
What are the facts?
How does he talk to me? Who does he think I am?
What does he want me to think or do, how does he want me to feel?
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:45)

34. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977)
Well, if you don‘t like my cooking, you can go and have your dinner elsewhere!
What are those green things in the sauce?
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:62)

35. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977) – Four Aspects of a Message
......
......
There is something green.
There is something green.
Don‘t put green things into the sauce next time!
I don’t know what it is.
Tell me what it is!
sent message
I don’t like it.
received message
///////////////////
///////////////////
You‘ll know it.
You are a bad cook!
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:63)

36. Schulz von Thun's Model (1977)
Sent
Message
Sender
Receiver
Received Message
///////////////////////
......
///////////////////////
Feedback
///////////////////
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:81)

37. Communicative Competence
“Communicative Competence describes the speaker’s ability to select from the totality of grammatical expressions available to him, forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific encounters.” (Hymes 1972:270, in: Beneke (ed.) 1993:76)

38. Communicative Competence
“From a sociolinguistic perspective, communicative competence includes the following:
(a) LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE: verbal and nonverbal codes, and the range of possible variants
(b) INTERACTION SKILLS: sociolinguistic rules for appropriate use, discourse organization and processes, and strategies for achieving goals
(c) CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE: social structure, values and beliefs, and cognitive maps or schemata for the content domains”
(Saville-Troike 1992, in: Bright 1992:273)

39. 2. The Training of Communicative Skills
(based on Schulz von Thun’s model)

40. Congruent versus Incongruent Messages
//////////////////////////
//////////////////////////
Everything‘s just fine!
My life is a total disaster.
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:36)

41. Receiving with One of Four Ears
Self- disclosure
Facts
Appeal
Relationship
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:45)

42. Three Stages of Receiving a Message
perceiving
interpreting
feeling
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:74)

43. Metacommunication CONTENT RELATIONSHIP analytical thinking, words
older parts of the brain: emotions
(cf. Birkenbihl 1987:258)

44. .......... Metacommunication Content 2) I-messages (Self-disclosure)
3) Wishes (Appeal)
(Leave the content level!)
////////////////////////////////
1) Explicit Metacommunication (Relationship)
(cf. Schulz von Thun 1994:201)

45. 3. Moving towards Intercultural Communication
Why is intercultural communication much more difficult than monocultural communication?
(discussion)

46. References
Beneke, Jürgen (1993): “English as the medium of intercultural communication: Some teaching suggestions“. In: Beneke, Jürgen (ed.) (1993), pp
Beneke, Jürgen (ed.) (1993): Communication in Aviation : A collection of papers edited on behalf of IACTFLAP. Bonn : Dümmler (Sprachen und Sprachenlernen: 312; Dümmlerbuch 6312)
Birkenbihl, Vera F. (1987): Kommunikationstraining : Zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen erfolgreich gestalten. 8. Aufl. Landsberg am Lech : mgv-Verlag
Bright, William (ed. in chief) (1992): International Encyclopedia of Linguistics : Volume 2 : Expl - Moot. New York : Oxford University Press
Bussmann, Hadumod (1996): Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London : Routledge

47. References
Chandler, Daniel (1995): The Transmission Model of Communication. (last modified: 9 May 2000, last accessed: 5 November 2001) <
Corner, John; Hawthorn, Jeremy (eds.) (1989): Communication Studies : an introductory reader. 3rd ed. London : Arnold
Gerbner, George (1956): A generalized graphic model of communication. In : Corner, John; Hawthorn, Jeremy (eds.) (1989), pp
Ipsen, Guido (1999): The Interactive MultiMedia Linguistics for Beginners : 6. Communication. (this version: May 1999, introduced: 20 July 2000, last accessed: 23 October 2001) <

48. References
Schulz von Thun, Friedemann (1994): Miteinander reden 1 : Störungen und Klärungen : Allgemeine Psychologie der Kommunikation. Reinbek bei Hamburg : Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag (rororo ; 7489)
Saville-Troike, Muriel (1992): “Communicative Competence“. In : Bright, William (ed.) (1992), p. 273
Underwood, Mick ( ): CCMS - Communication studies, cultural studies, media studies infobase. (last accessed: 23 October 2001) <
Watzlawick, Paul; Beavin, Janet H.; Jackson, Don D. (1967): Pragmatics of Human Communication : A Study of Interactional Patterns, Pathologies, and Paradoxes. New York : W. W. Norton & Company