1. 1 Principles of Drama: Aristotle—Tragedy Dr. Stephen Ogden BCIT Liberal Studies

2. Commentary on Drama PLATO (5 th C. BC) The Republic: describes, from pure reason alone, the perfect State. The Republic: describes, from pure reason alone, the perfect State. Set in dramatic form Set in dramatic form Drama must justify its place in the perfect society. Drama must justify its place in the perfect society. But, drama is not the truth, by definition—it is a copy: an imitation, a LIE. But, drama is not the truth, by definition—it is a copy: an imitation, a LIE. It also shows bad things in a likeable way It also shows bad things in a likeable way The quality of the drama is irrelevant: in fact excellent artistry in an evil cause is the worst possible evil: coruptio optima est pessima. The quality of the drama is irrelevant: in fact excellent artistry in an evil cause is the worst possible evil: coruptio optima est pessima. Drama is extremely dangerous because ordinary people mistake– or even prefer –lies to truth: that is, fantasy to reality. Drama is extremely dangerous because ordinary people mistake– or even prefer –lies to truth: that is, fantasy to reality.

3. Two Main Conceptions of Drama Plato: the Rationalist-Moralist conception of Drama. Plato: the Rationalist-Moralist conception of Drama. use rational process of reason to determine what drama is (i.e. its nature) and what follows from that necessarily by logic. Shows what should be the case in theory. use rational process of reason to determine what drama is (i.e. its nature) and what follows from that necessarily by logic. Shows what should be the case in theory. Aristotle: the empirical-scientific conception of Drama. Aristotle: the empirical-scientific conception of Drama. use observation to show what works and what doesn’t work in fact. Shows what is the case. use observation to show what works and what doesn’t work in fact. Shows what is the case.

4. One Alternative Modern Conception of Drama The political-ideological conception of Drama. drama is approved to the degree that it promotes the principles or propaganda points of some specific political or ideological system. drama is approved to the degree that it promotes the principles or propaganda points of some specific political or ideological system. e.g. totalitarian systems demand that theatre supports advances their underlying doctrines e.g. totalitarian systems demand that theatre supports advances their underlying doctrines e.g. a playwright constructs a drama according to his social, political or religious system (an ‘ology’ or ‘ism’). Examples: e.g. a playwright constructs a drama according to his social, political or religious system (an ‘ology’ or ‘ism’). Examples: heroes personify his principles ideas and villains oppose his ideas. heroes personify his principles ideas and villains oppose his ideas. structure of drama reflects the structure of his dogmas structure of drama reflects the structure of his dogmas Sometimes termed “didactic drama” (didact = L. ‘teacher’.) (didact = L. ‘teacher’.)

5. ARISTOTLE: foundational science of Drama 1. Aristotle was taken to be scientific truth for so long in Western society that: his particular method of analysis – the very terms and the concepts that he used – became part of the way of not only thinking & writing about Drama, but of actually writing the drama itself his particular method of analysis – the very terms and the concepts that he used – became part of the way of not only thinking & writing about Drama, but of actually writing the drama itself dramatists wrote their plays according to Aristotle’s analysis. dramatists wrote their plays according to Aristotle’s analysis. present-day dramatists go out of their way to claim that they do Greek drama present-day dramatists go out of their way to claim that they do Greek drama

6. ARISTOTLE: method Aristotle is modern, in the sense that his analysis of Drama is founded on its effects—the way that drama works on the audience. Aristotle is modern, in the sense that his analysis of Drama is founded on its effects—the way that drama works on the audience. Aristotle is thus grounding his analysis of drama on human psychology, not on abstract or theoretical ideals; or on morality or theology. Aristotle is thus grounding his analysis of drama on human psychology, not on abstract or theoretical ideals; or on morality or theology. Aristotle is showing what works: thus the best drama is the drama that works best. Aristotle is showing what works: thus the best drama is the drama that works best. (He does have first principles about quality.) (He does have first principles about quality.)

7. ARISTOTLE: Origin Drama is imitation – Mimesis. Drama is imitation – Mimesis. 1. Imitation natural to humans (homo reddo) from birth. unique among animals, man learns & likes learning by imitation unique among animals, man learns & likes learning by imitation 2. There is a universal human pleasure in imitation—we like seeing images of objects. Understanding is a form of pleasure Understanding is a form of pleasure

8. ARISTOTLE: Drama = Agents Drama has the following characteristic respects identifying its species of imitation Drama has the following characteristic respects identifying its species of imitation 1. Medium: rhythm, language & melody (e.g. diegetic & non-diegetic in film) (e.g. diegetic & non-diegetic in film) 2. Mode: (i.) narration, (ii.) monologue, or (iii.) agents engaged in activity (‘dialogue’) Diegetic music & narration are non-memietic drama Diegetic music & narration are non-memietic drama 3. Object: imitate agents (‘actors’). Agents can be admirable or inferior. = Character—the practice of moral behavior = Character—the practice of moral behavior Characters differ by defect or excellence Characters differ by defect or excellence Thus agents can be better, worse or the same as us Thus agents can be better, worse or the same as us Tragedy imitates people better than us; Comedy worse Tragedy imitates people better than us; Comedy worse ‘Drama’ = agents & people DOING things: ‘dram’ = ‘to do’ ‘Drama’ = agents & people DOING things: ‘dram’ = ‘to do’

9. ARISTOTLE: Tragedy Forms of poiesis (Gr. ‘to make’) divided into types of agents imitated: Forms of poiesis (Gr. ‘to make’) divided into types of agents imitated: Serious-minded people imitated fine actions Serious-minded people imitated fine actions Trivial-minded people imitated inferior persons Trivial-minded people imitated inferior persons Narration (orig. epic poetry) ended & actors added; choral parts reduced. Narration (orig. epic poetry) ended & actors added; choral parts reduced. Comedy: imitating inferior people means laughter, since we laugh at what is disgraceful. Comedy: imitating inferior people means laughter, since we laugh at what is disgraceful. ‘Laughable’=error or disgrace that does not involve pain or destruction ‘Laughable’=error or disgrace that does not involve pain or destruction

10. ARISTOTLE: Tragedy Defined Tragedy imitates action that is as follows: Tragedy imitates action that is as follows: 1. Admirable 2. Complete 3. Possessing magnitude 4. Pleasurable language 5. Separated into different parts (sections) 6. Acted not narrated 7. Effecting fear and pity 8. Through fear and pity, purifying the emotions

11. ARISTOTLE: Tragedy’s Parts 1. Spectacle 2. Diction (Dialogue) 3. Character 4. Reasoning 5. Lyric Poetry (Music Score in film?) 6. Plot (the organisation of the action—‘events’) SPECTACLE: Tragedy never performed is still a tragedy, and a good tragedy can be badly performed or set. SPECTACLE: Tragedy never performed is still a tragedy, and a good tragedy can be badly performed or set. DIALOGUE: Likewise, because drama is the imitation of action, the choice & arrangement of action to be imitated is more important than the way that the imitation is realised in words. A good dramatic idea can be badly written. DIALOGUE: Likewise, because drama is the imitation of action, the choice & arrangement of action to be imitated is more important than the way that the imitation is realised in words. A good dramatic idea can be badly written. CHARACTER: Tragedy imitates actions, not persons. CHARACTER: Tragedy imitates actions, not persons. PLOT: Thus, because Drama is action “Plot is the source and (as it were) the soul of tragedy.” PLOT: Thus, because Drama is action “Plot is the source and (as it were) the soul of tragedy.”

12. ARISTOTLE: Plot PLOT: ‘Reasoning’ and ‘Character’. Given the action of drama, character & reasoning will be part of tragedy. Given the action of drama, character & reasoning will be part of tragedy. CHARACTER: What an agent does in a particular dramatic circumstance is determined by his character— i.e. his moral virtue. An unattended purse with a lot of money inside: will he steal it? Depends upon his character. CHARACTER: What an agent does in a particular dramatic circumstance is determined by his character— i.e. his moral virtue. An unattended purse with a lot of money inside: will he steal it? Depends upon his character. REASONING: What are the facts—past, present & future—that affect the agent’s decision about the purse? REASONING: What are the facts—past, present & future—that affect the agent’s decision about the purse? The decision will depend upon the agent’s reasoning. The decision will depend upon the agent’s reasoning. Character reveals the nature of choice. Character reveals the nature of choice.

13. ARISTOTLE: Primacy of Plot Tragedy is imitation of actions & life, not of persons Tragedy is imitation of actions & life, not of persons 1. Well-being and ill-being reside in action 2. “The goal of life is an activity not a quality.” (Good and Evil are not what you are but what you do.) (Good and Evil are not what you are but what you do.) 3. The imitation of character is not the purpose what actors do: character is included as one of the actions in the drama. 4. So, events—the plot—are what tragedy (drama) is there for and that is the most important thing of all.

14. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic Concepts COMPLETENESS: A (correct) Plot has a beginning, middle and end. COMPLETENESS: A (correct) Plot has a beginning, middle and end. Not a trivial remark: a plot thus has Unity and is non- arbitrary. Not a trivial remark: a plot thus has Unity and is non- arbitrary. Beginning: How the events come about. Beginning: How the events come about. Ab initio; ab ovo; in media res. Ab initio; ab ovo; in media res. Middle: the sequence of action. Middle: the sequence of action. End: a resolution and a closure. End: a resolution and a closure. Not ‘Episodic”: no soap opera… Not ‘Episodic”: no soap opera… Two parts: Complication & Resolution Two parts: Complication & Resolution what come before & after the change of fortune. what come before & after the change of fortune.

15. “The Three Unities” Unity of Time: Unity of Time: the audience cannot easily comprehend, and stagecraft is challenged to present, radical shifts in time. the audience cannot easily comprehend, and stagecraft is challenged to present, radical shifts in time. Unity of Action: Unity of Action: human psychology expects and feels rewarded by single series of complete action human psychology expects and feels rewarded by single series of complete action Unity of Place: Unity of Place: stagecraft is overcome by, and audiences are puzzled by, radical change of setting. stagecraft is overcome by, and audiences are puzzled by, radical change of setting.

16. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic Concepts MAGNITUDE: a sense that too small and too large are incomprehensible, so a plot has to sufficiently sized to be held in memory & comprehension MAGNITUDE: a sense that too small and too large are incomprehensible, so a plot has to sufficiently sized to be held in memory & comprehension UNITY & DETERMINATE STRUTURE: each component event must be related to the concepts of drama (e.g. exciting fear & pity) and must be such that the removal of it dislodges & changes the whole. If the event does not do this, it is not part of the unity or structure. UNITY & DETERMINATE STRUTURE: each component event must be related to the concepts of drama (e.g. exciting fear & pity) and must be such that the removal of it dislodges & changes the whole. If the event does not do this, it is not part of the unity or structure.

17. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Basic Concepts UNIVERSALITY: The dramatist says what would happen, as opposed to the historian who says what has happened. UNIVERSALITY: The dramatist says what would happen, as opposed to the historian who says what has happened. Thus the dramatist is more philosophical & serious than the historian: the historian expresses only particulars but dramatist expresses what is universal. Thus the dramatist is more philosophical & serious than the historian: the historian expresses only particulars but dramatist expresses what is universal. ‘Universal’ means speech or action that agrees with some given kind of person in accordance probability or necessity. ‘Universal’ means speech or action that agrees with some given kind of person in accordance probability or necessity. The facts of life require plausible responses and expected responses: e.g. parents protect their kids The facts of life require plausible responses and expected responses: e.g. parents protect their kids No “Deus ex Machina.” No “Deus ex Machina.”

18. Deus ex Machina ‘God from the machina” (the device by which gods were suspended above the stage in the Greek theatre.) (the device by which gods were suspended above the stage in the Greek theatre.) A power, event, person, or thing that comes in the nick of time to solve a plot difficulty. A power, event, person, or thing that comes in the nick of time to solve a plot difficulty.that comes in the nick of timesolve a plot difficultythat comes in the nick of timesolve a plot difficulty

19. ARISTOTLE: Plot—basic concepts ASTONISHMENT: (‘to thaumaston’) 1. Tragedy is imitation of events that evoke fear and pity. 2. These come about when things happen contrary to expectation and because of one another (rather than randomly) 3. When this happens we feel astonishment

20. ARISTOTLE: Plot—basic concepts SUFFERING: (pathos): SUFFERING: (pathos): an action which involves pain or destruction an action which involves pain or destruction death, injury, extreme agony (includes emotional pain and destruction of attachments) death, injury, extreme agony (includes emotional pain and destruction of attachments) essential for purification (katharsis) essential for purification (katharsis)

21. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Simple vs Complex COMPLEX ACTION: the best kind of plot. COMPLEX ACTION: the best kind of plot. Has a change of fortune, and one that involves reversal or recognition or both Has a change of fortune, and one that involves reversal or recognition or both REVERSAL: (peripeteia) a change to the opposite in the actions being performed, in accordance with probability or necessity REVERSAL: (peripeteia) a change to the opposite in the actions being performed, in accordance with probability or necessity RECOGNITION: (anagnorisis) a change from ignorance to knowledge. RECOGNITION: (anagnorisis) a change from ignorance to knowledge. disclosing a either a close relationship or enmity on people marked out for good or bad fortune. disclosing a either a close relationship or enmity on people marked out for good or bad fortune. best when occurs simultaneously with peripeteia. best when occurs simultaneously with peripeteia. involves fear and pity, and astonishment. involves fear and pity, and astonishment.

22. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Best kind Should not show decent men or women changing from good fortune to bad: Should not show decent men or women changing from good fortune to bad: this creates disgust not fear & pity this creates disgust not fear & pity Nor should depraved people been seen changing from bad fortune to good Nor should depraved people been seen changing from bad fortune to good This least tragic: not even agreeable This least tragic: not even agreeable Nor again should a wicked person be seen falling from good to bad fortune. Nor again should a wicked person be seen falling from good to bad fortune. Agreeable but no fear or pity Agreeable but no fear or pity Therefore the person should be intermediate between these (The Golden Mean).: Therefore the person should be intermediate between these (The Golden Mean).: Not outstandingly morally bad or good. Not outstandingly morally bad or good. But better than we are. But better than we are. Error not due to any moral defect or depravity but to an ERROR of some kind (hamartia.) Error not due to any moral defect or depravity but to an ERROR of some kind (hamartia.)

23. ARISTOTLE: Hamartia (w. Hubris) Misunderstood as ‘Tragic Flaw.’ Misunderstood as ‘Tragic Flaw.’ Not ‘flaw’ but ‘serious error.’ Not ‘flaw’ but ‘serious error.’ remember that character is action not quality. remember that character is action not quality. The error should be, in principle, correctible, but …… The error should be, in principle, correctible, but …… The error should be, in principle, correctible, but …… The error should be, in principle, correctible, but …… Allows for the (factual) operation of Fate in human affairs. Allows for the (factual) operation of Fate in human affairs. Serves as warning against Hubris: Serves as warning against Hubris: = ‘wanton insolence’ = ‘wanton insolence’ In ancient Greece, a high crime: In ancient Greece, a high crime: humiliating a victim to gratify the victor’s desire. In drama, challenge to the gods. In drama, challenge to the gods. C. S. LEWIS “Walk carefully, do not wake the envy of the happy gods, Shun Hubris.” C. S. LEWIS Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. Aeschylus’ Agamemnon. Brings about Nemesis. Brings about Nemesis.

24. Hamartia example Mr. Darcy in Pride & Prejudice commits this type of error: Mr. Darcy in Pride & Prejudice commits this type of error: technical because it fails to comprehend the fullness of the code of masculinity & gentility; technical because it fails to comprehend the fullness of the code of masculinity & gentility; moral because it was mistaken Pride, or reserve, that caused it. moral because it was mistaken Pride, or reserve, that caused it.

25. ARISTOTLE & Katharsis Katharsis: purification of the emotions Katharsis: purification of the emotions (the complex (best) plot has effected fear & pity in the audience.) (the complex (best) plot has effected fear & pity in the audience.) A medical idea: early psychiatry A medical idea: early psychiatry Aristotle recognises what is a very modern position— that emotions are an important part of human health. Aristotle recognises what is a very modern position— that emotions are an important part of human health. Disordered emotions lead to ‘stress’ which effect physical symptoms to the point of fatality. Disordered emotions lead to ‘stress’ which effect physical symptoms to the point of fatality. Drama is thus a means of ordering, or balancing, the emotions so that good individual and social health are promoted, Drama is thus a means of ordering, or balancing, the emotions so that good individual and social health are promoted, this seems like a direct engagement with Plato’s position on drama (that drama excites the emotions over Reason and thereby creates individual and, ultimately, social imbalance.) this seems like a direct engagement with Plato’s position on drama (that drama excites the emotions over Reason and thereby creates individual and, ultimately, social imbalance.)

26. ARISTOTLE: Plot—Character Four things that make for effective character in drama; Four things that make for effective character in drama; 1. Goodness: makes deliberate good (socially & personally beneficial) choice. 2. Appropriateness: consistent with probability or necessity E.g. Jar Jar Binks does not make a good lover for Padmé Amidala. E.g. Jar Jar Binks does not make a good lover for Padmé Amidala. 3. Likeness: not too high or low compared with us 4. Consistency: a given, again, in terms of probability or necessity.