1. By A. Bittinger

2. Outline… Importance of Coral Reefs Diagnosis Identifying Problems Mitigation Measures Coral Reef Restoration

3. Introduction: Importance of Coral Reefs in the Environment. Why do we assess reef health? Home to 25% of all marine fish Support tourist economies Source of drugs for medical use Generate billions in revenue Food source for 300 million people Coastal protection from wave erosion 20 million scuba divers Great beauty and spiritual value Climate change indicators Healthy Acropora prolifera coral

4. What do we monitor? High-value fish typically targeted by aquarium collectors, spear fishermen and others. Count at family level -- some species Invertebrate species typically targeted as food species or collected for curio trade. Substrate categories chosen to detect large scale changes.

5. How do you diagnose coral reef health? Dive surveys – transects  Substrate Identification (Reef Check Substrate ID Training Module)Reef Check Substrate ID Training Module  Species identification and quantification (Reef Check Instruction Manual, EcoReefs Site Surveys and Assessments)Reef Check Instruction ManualEcoReefs Site Surveys and Assessments Water quality measurements Example of a diver transect survey

6. Identifying Problems: Focusing on a spectrum of environmental factors Identified Natural and Human-Induced Stresses  High sediment loads  High nutrient loads  Bleaching  Anchoring, Grounding, Vessel discharge  Too much algae  Disease  Destructive Fishing Practices (blast fishing, cyanide fishing, over fishing, reef gleaning, poor net practices, muro-ami)  Pollution (oil spills, sewage outflows, industrial outflows, agricultural runoff)  Mining  Trash  Invasive species (Crown of Thorns)  Coastal Development  Overuse from tourism  Habitat destruction  Climate change  Extreme biologic events  Tectonic activity (volcanoes, lava, uplift)  Storms and wave action (tropical cyclones)  Freshwater runoff Major coral reef sites are seen as red dots on this world map. Most of the reefs, with a few exceptions are found in tropical and semitropical waters, between 30° north and 30° south latitudes (NOAA, CoRIS).

7. Spectrum of Stress Factors Invasive Species (crown of thorns) Storms and wave action (tropical cyclones) Freshwater runoff Tectonic activity Disease Algae Diseased Colpophyllia natans (Giant Brain Coral) - Southwater Cay, Caribbean, Belize

8. Spectrum of Stress Factors High Nutrients High Sediments Bleaching Climate Change Sediment in water column from hurricane

9. Spectrum of Stress Factors Coastal Development Overuse from Tourism Habitat Destruction Vessel Grounding Anchoring Feeding humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) by divers. French Polynesia

10. Spectrum of Stress Factors Destructive Fishing Practices  Cyanide poisoning  Blast fishing  Muro-ami  Overfishing  Reef gleaning

11. Spectrum of Stress Factors Pollution (oil spills, vessel discharge) Trash Industrial Outfalls

12. Mitigation Measures Development and Management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Monitoring and Removal of Derelict Fishing Nets and Marine Debris. Restoration of orphaned or adjacent sites. Reduce pollution and coastal runoff. Reduce or eliminate over-fishing. Restrict stressful activities. Remove coral predators. Artificially shade or cool selected reefs to lessen the bleaching impacts. Improve Aids to Navigation (ATONs). Improve public education and community involvement.

13. Mitigation Measures: Development and Management of MPAs Objectives  Provide shelter to biodiversity from climate related impacts that cause bleaching.  Allow for recovery of massive corals.  Reduce reef damage from destructive fishing practices and storm drainage. Action: Identify patterns of bleaching, resilience, and recovery with respect to environmental factors. Survey bleached areas and select sites for monitoring regular long- term activity. Chromis viridis (blue-green chromis) over bleached Acropora. Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

14. Mitigation Measures: Monitoring and Removal of Derelict Fishing Nets and Marine Debris. Survey Methods  Beach – some sources recommend not removing debris because of further environmental damage, other sources have been cited as burning debris to prevent wildlife from entanglement.  Ocean – shows trends in debris location  Benthic – ability to remove debris by diver or boat  Ship site – no removal associated  Ship trawl – removal of sampled area only  Remote sensing – satellite ocean winds detect areas of convergence which are likely to contain large amounts of derelict nets and gear; currently being investigated by NMFS Honolulu Laboratory Action: Removal of debris; better MARPOL enforcement

15. Mitigation Measures: Transplant Restoration Methods:  Sowing bits and pieces of damaged collected material.  Planting with a portion of rock.  Clean surface and cement or epoxy around organism edges.  Establish ceramic reef kits for sown bits to attach and reproduce.

16. Mitigation Measures: Reduce pollution and coastal runoff– healthy ecosystems are more easily recover able. Implement sewage treatment measures. Implement solid waste removal procedures. Filter and regulate plant outflow. Reduce or eliminate nutrients and toxins on agricultural land and at the head of the watershed to reduce polluted runoff.

17. Mitigation Measures: Reduce over-fishing Impose enforced fishing limits Prohibit vessels from entering areas of impact or recovery Prohibit destructive fishing, trawling, or netting procedures in reef areas

18. Mitigation Measures: Restrict stressful activities Prohibit diving, snorkeling, boating, and fishing in impacted or recovery areas. Tourist standing on reef. Mark prohibited and recovering areas with special purpose buoys.

19. Mitigation Measures: Remove coral predators Collect and relocate crown of thorns. Reduce coral-eating snails. Create and enforce no- take zones in impacted or recovering areas.

20. Mitigation Measures: Artificial shade and cooling Patches of algae are known to help prevent bleaching in shaded areas.

21. Mitigation Measures: Improve ATONs Use special purpose buoys to mark impacted or recovering areas to prohibit entry Provide awareness of shallow depths Signify MPAs Show direction of danger Exhibit site and sound signals

22. Mitigation Measures: Improve public education and community involvement Recruit community volunteers for clean-up activities and provide feedback on reef health due to clean-up. Provide information to the public on the importance of coral reefs at:  Community board meetings  Local marinas  Schools  Libraries Action: Get involved in your local community Post Loy Kratong Festival Beach Clean Up, Coral Reef Institute Beach & Underwater Clean-Up

23. Coral Reef Restoration Intervention  Transplanting  Topography rebuilding with dislodged massive corals  Stabilizing widespread fractures Non-intervention  Closures  Develop MPAs

24. Coral Reef Restoration: Transplanting Transplanting is a useful tool, however it is still in experimental stages. Careful consideration must be made in choosing species that are biologically, ecologically, and environmentally compatible with the region. Pros  Immediate increase in coral coverage, diversity, rugosity, and herbivore shelter.  Survival of locally rare species and reintroduction where there is a limited larval supply.  Improve aesthetics for tourism areas. Cons  Loss from donor areas  High mortality rates and loss from wave action  Reduced growth rates and fecundity due to stress

25. Coral Reef Restoration: Rebuilding Methods Rescue damaged resources and store in a safe place for transplant  Right overturned boulders  Salvage broken pieces in crates Remove or Stabilize Loose Debris  Stabilize with mortar  Cap with boulders  Use divers to transport Structural Reconstruction  Repair or replace 3D relief  Replace dislodged or shifted formations to their original locations  Fabricate structures from limestone or molded cement Reef-building staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis)

26. Coral Reef Restoration: Success Criteria Stability – Are the corals able to withstand currents and wave action? Toxicity – Are there death or signs of stress due to leaching? Aesthetics – Does the new habitat match the original natural habitat? Rubble Stability – Are substrates secure? Action: If 20% or more of structures are moved, deteriorated, or damaged then remedial action should be taken asap.

27. For further information… Reef Check – Complete surveys, guides, and manuals to coral reef health assessment. http://www.reefcheck.org http://www.reefcheck.org NOAA’s Coral Reef Watch – http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov NOAA’s Coral Health and Monitoring Program - http://www.coral.noaa.gov/

28. References Corals are “IN HOT WATER”: How NOAA Satellites are Helping. NOAA Magazine. July 31, 2006. Donohue, Mary J., Russell Brainard, Michael Parkel, and David Foley. Mitigation of Environmental Impacts of Derelict Fishing Gear Through Debris Removal and Environmental Monitoring.[Online 26 September 2006] http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/graphics/special_offerings/Issue_Paper_5.pdf. http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/graphics/special_offerings/Issue_Paper_5.pdf EcoReefs: Coral Reef Rehabilitation. [Online October 13, 2006] http://www.ecoreefs.com/home.php Edwards, Alasdair J., and Susan Clark. 1998. Coral Transplantation: A Useful Management Tool or Misguided Meddling? Marine Pollution Bulletin. Vol. 3. Nos. 8-12. pp. 474-487. Jaap, W.C. 2002. Coral Reef Restoration. Ecological Engineering. Vol. 15. pp. 345-364. NOAA Coral Reef Watch. Remote Sensing and Coral Reefs, Lesson 7: Threats to Coral Reefs: Natural and Human. [Online October 13, 2006] http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/education/reef_remote_sensing.html Reef Check - Publications http://www.reefcheck.org/infocenter/publications.asphttp://www.reefcheck.org/infocenter/publications.asp  RC Instruction Manual 2004  RC Teaching Materials  RC ID Training Presentation, Jos Hill Salm, R.V., S.E. Smith and G Llewellyn. 2001. Mitigating the impact of coral bleaching through marine protected area design. Pp. 81-88 in Schuttenberg, H.Z. (ed.). Coral Bleaching: Causes, Consequences and Response. Selected papers presented at the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium on “Coral Bleaching: Assessing and Linking Ecological and Socioeconomic Impacts, Future Trends and Mitigation Planning.” Coastal Management Report #2230, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island: 102 pp. All videos are from http://www.reefvid.orghttp://www.reefvid.org