1. Evolution of Biodiversity
Chapter 5
Evolution of Biodiversity

2. Geologic Time Scale
Earth’s chemical and biological history can be described along a timeline- the geologic time scale.
To understand this timeline, you need to think in time units much larger than the time units used to define our lives.
Earth’s evolution led to our present day life supporting system.

3. Figure 5.23 Mass Extinctions The sixth mass extinction -
Five “recent” global mass extinctions - Over Earth’s history, individual species have evolved and gone extinct at random intervals. But the fossil record shows periods of global mass extinction, in which large numbers of species went extinct over relatively short periods of time.
The sixth mass extinction -
Earth is experiencing a global mass extinction of a magnitude within range of previous mass extinctions.
Estimates of extinction rates vary widely, ranging from 2% to as many as 25% of species going extinct by 2020.

4. Earth is home to a tremendous diversity of species
Ecosystem diversity- the variety of ecosystems within a given region.
Species diversity- the variety of species in a given ecosystem.
Genetic diversity- the variety of genes within a given species.

5. Species richness- the number of species in a given area.
Species evenness- the measure of whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or are all represented by similar numbers of individuals.

6. Evolution is the mechanism underlying biodiversity
Evolution- a change in the genetic composition of a population over time.
Microevolution- evolution below the species level.
Macroevolution- Evolution which gives rise to new species or new genera, family, class or phyla.

7. Creating Genetic Diversity
Genes- physical locations on chromosomes within each cell of an organism.
Genotype- the complete set of genes in an individual.
Mutation- a random change in the genetic code.
Phenotype- the actual set of traits expressed in an individual.

8. Evolution by artificial and natural selection
Evolution by artificial selection- when humans determine which individuals breed.
Evolution by natural selection- the environment determines which individuals are most likely to survive and reproduce.

10. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
Individuals produce an excess of offspring.
Not all offspring can survive.
Individuals differ in their traits.
Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to offspring.
Differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.

11. Evolution by Random Processes
Mutation- occur randomly and can add to the genetic variation of a population.
Genetic drift- change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating.
Bottleneck effect- a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size.
Founder effect- a change in a population descended from a small number of colonizing individuals.

12. Speciation and extinction determine biodiversity
Allopatric speciation- when new species are created by geographic or reproductive isolation.

13. Sympatric speciation- the evolution of one species into two species in the absence of geographic isolation, usually through the process of polyploidy, an increase in the number of sets of chromosomes.

14. The pace of evolution

15. Evolution shapes ecological niches and determines species distributions
Range of tolerance- all species have an optimal environment in which it performs well. The limit to the abiotic conditions they can tolerate is known as the range of tolerance.
Fundamental niche- the ideal conditions for a species.

16. Niches
Realized niche- the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives. This determines the species distribution, or areas of the world where it lives.
Niche generalist- species that live under a wide range of conditions (broad realized niche).
Niche specialist- species that live only in specific habitats (narrow realized niche).

17. Niche generalists - very broad realized niche, i. e
Niche generalists - very broad realized niche, i.e. can survive in wide range of conditions
Niche specialists - can live only under a very narrow range of conditions
raccoon
E. Mediohispanicum (mustard family) – flower attracts more than 100 species of insects
koala bear
giant panda
coyote
B. Rockii (pua’ana) – moth with specialized mouth parts (extinct), now pollinated by hand
orchid mantis
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18. Present day Latitudinal Biodiversity Gradient of terrestrial species richness
Richness Centers (top 5% richest for each taxon)
Amazon, Southeast Brazil, Central Africa
Total ~7% global land, ∼50% of all species
Amphibians most geographically concentrated,
~2% global land area with entire known
ranges of 50% of world’s amphibians
Same areas also contain a portion of the ranges for most remaining amphibians
i.e., total 96.6% of all amphibian species.
Present day distribution of species - realized niches, some more generalist, some more specialist
(Jenkins et al Global patterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and conservation)

19. Changes in environmental conditions have the potential to affect species’ distributions

20. Predicting future species distributions.
Figure 5.21
Predicting future species distributions. 
Based on knowledge of niche requirements of different tree species, it can be predicted how distributions might respond to future changes in environmental conditions.
Response of species distribution to environmental change based on more than knowledge of present niche requirements
There may be no favorable environment that is geographically close enough
Favorable environment may already be occupied by other very successful species
Change may occur so rapidly that a species does not have time to migrate or adapt

21. Figure 5.23 Mass Extinctions The sixth mass extinction -
Five “recent” global mass extinctions - Over Earth’s history, individual species have evolved and gone extinct at random intervals. But the fossil record shows periods of global mass extinction, in which large numbers of species went extinct over relatively short periods of time.
The sixth mass extinction -
Earth is experiencing a global mass extinction of a magnitude within range of previous mass extinctions.
Estimates of extinction rates vary widely, ranging from 2% to as many as 25% of species going extinct by 2020.