1. Credits to Vanessa Patel for some of the slides

3.  Archaeology – “the scientific study of material remains (as fossil relics, artifacts, and monuments) of past human life and activities”  Studies the time period starting at the Paleolithic time until the advent of literacy

4.  From bones, compared genomes of three different Neanderthals with five genomes from modern humans from different areas of the world Figure 1- R. E. Green et al., Science 328, 710-722 (2010)

5. Stoneking, Krause, Nature Reviews Genetics 2011

22. Neutral Drift Positive Selection Negative Selection How can we detect negative selection? How can we detect positive selection?

23. Ka/Ks ratio: Ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions Very old, persistent, strong positive selection for a protein that keeps adapting Examples: immune response, spermatogenesis Ka/Ks ratio: Ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions Very old, persistent, strong positive selection for a protein that keeps adapting Examples: immune response, spermatogenesis

25. Less time: Fewer mutations Fewer recombinations