1. Acid Precipitation

3. Learning Objectives Define acids and bases and pH scale Write chemical reactions describing the dissociation of acids and bases into ions Convert between pH and H + concentrations in aqueous solutions Explain how CO 2 leads to natural acidity in rainwater Explain how SO x and NO x create additional acidity in rainwater Examine the location of sources for SO x and NO x in the US Describe acid rain as a regional problem (as opposed to local or global)

4. Definitions Acid: substance that releases H + in water Base: substance that produces OH - in water Molarity (M): the number of moles of solute present in 1 liter of solution

5. Some Acids and Bases HCl NaOH NH 3 HCl + NaOH  H + + Cl -  Na + + OH - + H 2 O  NH 4 + + OH - Neutralization:  H 2 O + Na + + Cl -

6. pH = - log 10 [H + ] ? ?

7. M H + > M OH - acidic M H + < M OH - basic M H + = M OH - neutral acidicbasic neutral

8. Dissociation of Water Pure water naturally undergoes a slight dissociation reaction: H 2 O → H + + OH - The pH of pure water, which is neutral, is 7, so pH = 7 = -log([H + ]) -7 = log([H + ]) 10 -7 = [H + ] Ditto for the OH - in water: pOH = 7 = -log([OH - ]) -7 = log([OH - ]) 10 -7 = [OH - ]

9. pH of Common Substances

10. CO 2 as an Acid? exists in air at 370 ppm from natural processes an acid anhydride CO 2 + H 2 O  H 2 CO 3 carbonic acid  H + + HCO 3 -

11. pH of unpolluted air So when rain water falls through the air a certain amount of CO 2 is dissolved A certain about of this becomes carbonic acid As a result, unpolluted rain has a pH of about 5.6 But human activities release acid precursors so that in many places the pH of rain is much lower

12. Acid Precursors When gas pollutants e.g. sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rain water, various acids are formed. CO 2 + H 2 O  H 2 CO 3 (carbonic acid) SO 2 + H 2 O  H 2 SO 4 (sulphuric acid) NO 2 + H 2 O  HNO 2 (nitrous acid) & HNO 3 (nitric acid)

13. Detailed Reactions Sulphuric Acid: 2SO 2 (g) + O 2 (g)  2SO 3 (g) SO 3 (g) + H 2 O(l)  H 2 SO 4 (aq) Nitric Acid: 2NO(g) + O 2 (g)  2NO 2 (g) 4NO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(l) + O 2 (g)  4HNO 3 (aq)

15. Causes of Acid Precipitation SO 2 : 70%NO x : 30%

16. Acid Rain Reactions to convert to acid take place in ~2 days - travel 1000 miles Down wind - Acid rain Dry Dep. vs Wet Dep. Dry Deposition 50 % of total

19. A Typical NADP/NTN * Site Precipitation sampler Recording rain gage Consistent sampling protocols Central laboratory Internal and external QA/QC * National Atmospheric Deposition Program/ National Trends Network

20. NADP/ NTN Site Locations Check out http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/nadpdata/state.asp?state=VA

21. Sources of SO x and NO x C 135 H 96 O 9 NS coal

22. SO 2 Emissions across the United States

24. NO 2 Emissions across the United States

26. Overview: Acid Precipitation

27. Affected Areas Canada –Acid rain is a problem in Canada –Water and soil systems lack natural alkalinity such as lime base Cannot neutralize acid –Canada consists largely of hard rock such as granite Do not have the capacity to effectively neutralize acid rain

28. Affected Areas Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China, Eastern Europe and Russia and areas down-wind from them. Acid rain from power plants in the Midwest United States has also harmed the forests of upstate New York and New England. This shows that the effects of acid rain can spread over a large area, far from the source of the pollution

29. The net acid deposition flux = the total acid deposition flux – deposition flux of base cations.

31. Effects of Acid Rain Harmful to aquatic life –Increased acidity in water bodies –Causes eggs of certain organisms (e.g. fish) to stop hatching Changes population ratios Affects the ecosystem

32. Fish usually die only when the acid level of a lake is high When the acid level is lower, they can become sick, suffer stunted growth, or lose their ability to reproduce. Aluminum liberated from soil can interfere with gills Birds can die from eating "toxic" fish and insects.

33. Effects of Acid Rain Harmful to vegetation –Increased acidity in soil –Leeches nutrients from soil, slowing plant growth –Leeches toxins from soil, poisoning plants –Creates brown spots in leaves of trees, impeding photosynthesis –Allows organisms to infect through broken leaves

34. The needles and leaves of trees turn brown and fall off. Trees can also suffer from stunted growth Damaged bark and leaves can make them vulnerable to weather, disease, and insects

36. Effects of Acid Rain

37. Accelerates weathering in metal and stone structures –Eg. Parthenon in Athens, Greece; Taj Mahal in Agra, India

38. Effects of Acid Rain Impacts human health –Respiratory problems, asthma, dry coughs, headaches and throat irritations –Leeching of toxins from the soil by acid rain can be absorbed by plants and animals. When consumed, these toxins affect humans severely. –Brain damage, kidney problems, and Alzheimer's disease has been linked to people eating "toxic" animals/plants.

39. There are natural sources… Terrestial, tidal, and nutrient-rich oceanic areas Volcanic eruptions Forest fires Outgassing from anaerobic wetlands Breakdown of amino acids in organic wastes

40. Preventative Measures Reduce amount of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen released into the atomosphere –Use less energy (hence less fuel burnt) –Use cleaner fuels –Remove oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitrogen before releasing Flue gas desulphurization Catalytic Converters

41. Preventative Measures Use cleaner fuels –Coal that contains less sulphur –"Washing" the coal to reduce sulphur content –Natural Gas

42. Preventative Measures Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) –Removes sulphur dioxide from flue gas (waste gases) –Consists of a wet scrubber and a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoky stack gases from a power plant into the tower –Lime or limestone (calcium carbonate) in slurry form is injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and reacts with the sulphur dioxide present

43. Preventive Measures (continued) –Produces pH-neutral calcium sulphate that is physically removed from the scrubber –Sulphates can be used for industrial purposes

45. Preventive Measures Use other sources of electricity (i.e. nuclear power, hydro-electricity, wind energy, geothermal energy, and solar energy) –Issue of cost

46. Reducing the effects of Acid Rain Liming –Powdered limestone/limewater added to water and soil to neutralize acid –Used extensively in Norway and Sweden –Expensive, short-term remedy

47. Drawbacks of liming bodies of acidified water Very expensive Treatment needs to be repeated every 3-6 years Remote lakes are inaccessible Large pieces of lime dissolve slowly Doesn ’ t solve the problem for soil acidification

48. Policy 1979 - Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution took place with the idea to limit sulfur and nitrogen emissions was successfully achieved 1995-1997 Title IV of the Clean Air Act was established to reduce the adverse effects of acid deposition through reductions in annual emissions of sulfur dioxide of ten million tons from 1980 emission levels. Many policies and programs were established in the past couple of decades once governments started to become concerned with the harmful effects of air pollution.