1. Thinking Cognition Cognitive Psychologists
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation

2. Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

3. We organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Courtesy of Christine Brune

4. Development of Concepts
We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes-- mental image or best example of a category). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not.
Triangle (definition)
Bird (mental image)

5. Categories
Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category prototype.
Courtesy of Oliver Corneille
A computer generated face that was 70 percent
Caucasian led people to classify it as Caucasian.

6. There are two ways to solve problems:
Problem Solving
There are two ways to solve problems:
Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem.
OBJECTIVE 3| Compare algorithms and heuristics as problem-solving strategies, and explain how insight differs from both of them.

7. S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.

8. Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

9. Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
S P L O Y O C H G Y
P S L O Y O C H G Y
P S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
begins to make sense.

10. S P L O Y O C H Y G Thinking Unscramble Algorithm Heuristic
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?

11. Thinking Insight sudden and often novel realization of the solution
to a problem
contrasts with
strategy-based solutions
The Aha! moment

12. Insight
Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-Beeman, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is 0.3 seconds.

13. Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
OBJECTIVE 4| Contrast confirmation bias and fixation, and explain how they can interfere with effective problem solving.
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Ss had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).

14. The Three-Jugs Problem
Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

15. The Three-Jugs Problem
Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.
b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

16. Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional fixedness.
The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

17. The Matchstick Problem: Solution

18. Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

19. Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution

20. Figure 8.6: Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving.
Try solving the problems and identifying which class each belongs to before reading further. The problems can be classified as follows. The analogy problems and series completion problems are problems of inducing structure. The solutions for the analogy problems are Buy and Patient. The solutions for the series completion problems are 4 and E. The string problem and the anagram problems are problems of arrangement. To solve the string problem, attach the screwdriver to one string and set it swinging as a pendulum. Hold the other string and catch the swinging screwdriver. Then you need only untie the screwdriver and tie the strings together. The solutions for the anagram problems are WATER and JOKER. The hobbits and orcs problem and the water jar problem are problems of transformation. The solutions for these problems are outlined in Figures 8.7 and 8.8.
Fig. 8-6, p. 311

21. Fig. 8-7, p. 312 Figure 8.7: Solution to the hobbits and orcs problem.
This problem is difficult because it is necessary to temporarily work “away” from the goal.
Fig. 8-7, p. 312

22. Thinking Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

23. Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object. ?
Problem: Tie the two ropes together.
Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

24. The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight is
Functional Fixedness
Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. Swing it toward the other rope to tie the knot. ?
The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight is
functional fixedness.

25. Nine dots problem
Without lifting your pencil or re-tracing any line, draw four straight lines that connect all nine dots
key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

26. Nine dots mental set
Most people will not draw lines that extend from the square formed by the nine dots
To solve the problem, you have to break your mental set
key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

27. Using and Misusing Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists.
OBJECTIVE 5| Contrast the representative and availability heuristics, and explain how they can cause us to underestimate or ignore important information.
Amos Tversky
Daniel Kahneman

28. Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors.

29. All (except one) of these animals fit the concept of “penguin”

30. Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?
Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability.
How is retrieval facilitated?
How recently we have heard about the event.
How distinct it is.
How correct it is.

31. Making Decision & Forming Judgments
Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.

32. Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
OBJECTIVE 6| Describe the drawbacks and advantages of overconfidence in decision making.
At a stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

33. The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded.
The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear.
AP/ Wide World Photos

34. Thinking Framing the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?

35. Framing Decisions
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
OBJECTIVE 7| Describe how others can use framing to elicit from us the answers they want.

36. Belief Bias
The tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions.
God is love.
Love is blind
Ray Charles is blind.
Ray Charles is God.
Anonymous graffiti
OBJECTIVE 8| Explain how our preexisting beliefs can distort our logic.

37. Belief Perseverance
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).
OBJECTIVE 9| Describe the remedy for belief perseverance phenomenon.

38. Perils & Powers of Intuition
Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe the smart thinker’s reaction to using intuition.

39. Perils & Powers of Intuition

40. Artificial Intelligence
designing and programming computer systems
to do intelligent things
to simulate human thought processes
intuitive reasoning
learning
understanding language

41. Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks
computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells
performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns
learning to recognize smells

42. Language
Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others.
M. & E. Bernheim/ Woodfin Camp & Associates
Language transmits culture.

43. Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
OBJECTIVE 11| Describe the basic structural units of language.

44. Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table

45. Structuring Language Phonemes Morphemes Words Phrase Sentence
Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.
Morphemes
Smallest meaningful units (100,000) … un, for.
Words
Meaningful units (290,500) … meat, pumpkin.
Phrase
Composed of two or more words (326,000) … meat eater.
Sentence
Composed of many words (infinite) … She opened the jewelry box.

46. Grammar
Grammar is the system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate with and understand others.
Grammar
Semantics
Syntax

47. Semantics
Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. For example:
Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed to the word laugh means that it happened in the past.

48. Syntax
Syntax consists of the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. For example:
In English, syntactical rule says that adjectives come before nouns; white house. In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blanca.

49. Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2.
Language Development
Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2.
We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school.
Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images

50. When do we learn language?
Babbling Stage: Beginning at 4 months, the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah-goo. Babbling is not imitation of adult speech.
OBJECTIVE 12| Trace the course of language acquisition from the babbling stage through two-word stage.

51. When do we learn language?
One-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him. The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there.

52. When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. This form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.

53. When do we learn language?
Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech, children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.
You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.

54. When do we learn language?

55. Explaining Language Development
Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement.
OBJECTIVE 13| Discuss Skinner’s and Chomsky’s contributions to the nature-nurture debate over how children acquire language, and explain why statistical learning and critical periods are important concepts in children’s language learning.

56. Explaining Language Development
Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
Our language acquisition capacity is like a box– a “language acquisition device” (LAD) in which grammar switches are thrown as children experience their language.

57. Explaining Language Development
3. Statistical Learning and Critical Periods: Well before our first birthday, our brains are discerning word breaks by statistically analyzing which syllables in hap-py-ba-by go together. These statistical analyses are learned during critical periods of child development.

58. Genes, Brain, & Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain.
Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc.
David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images
Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

59. Learning new languages gets harder with age.
Language & Age
Learning new languages gets harder with age.

60. Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Language & Thinking
Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Rubber Ball/ Almay

61. Language Linguistic Determinism
Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
The Hopi have no past tense for their verbs. Therefore, a Hopi could not so readily think about the past.

62. Language Influences Thinking
When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about these objects more clearly and remember them. It is easier to think about two colors with two different names (A) than colors with the same name (B) (Özgen, 2004).

63. Word Power
Increasing word power pays its dividends. It pays for speakers and deaf individuals who learn sign language.

64. Linguistic Determinism Questioned
Although people from Papua New Guinea do not use our words for colors and shapes, they still perceive them as we do (Rosch, 1974).

65. We don’t think in words, when:
Thinking in Images
To a large extent thinking is language-based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However, we also think in images.
We don’t think in words, when:
OBJECTIVE 15| Discuss the value of thinking in images.
1. When we open the hot water tap.
2. When we are riding our bicycle.

66. Images and Brain
Imagining a physical activity activates the same brain regions as when actually performing the activity.
Jean Duffy Decety, September 2003

67. Do animals have a language?
Animals & Language
Do animals have a language?
Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance
moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.

68. Do Animals Think? Concept formation. Insight Problem Solving Culture
Common cognitive skills in humans and apes include the following:
Concept formation.
Insight
Problem Solving
Culture
Mind?
William Munoz
OBJECTIVE 16| List five cognitive skills shared by the great apes and humans.
African grey parrot assorts red
blocks from green balls.

69. Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems.
Sultan uses sticks to get food.

70. Apes are famous, much like us, for solving problems.
Problem Solving
Apes are famous, much like us, for solving problems.
Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne,
Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
Chimpanzee fishing for ants.

71. Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.
Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society
Copyright Amanda K Coakes
Dolphins using sponges as
forging tools.
Chimpanzee mother using and
teaching a young how to use
a stone hammer.

72. Can animals infer mental states in themselves and others?
To some extent. Chimps and orangutans (and dolphins) used mirrors to inspect themselves when a researcher put paint spots on their faces or bodies.

73. Do Animals Exhibit Language?
There is no doubt that animals communicate.
Vervet monkeys, whales and even honey bees communicate with members of their species and other species.
OBJECTIVE 17| Outline the arguments for and against the idea that animals and humans share the capacity for language.
Copyright Baus/ Kreslowski
Rico (collie) has a
200-word vocabulary

74. The Case of Apes
Chimps do not have a vocal apparatus for human-like speech (Hayes & Hayes,1951). Therefore, Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe, a chimp, who learned 182 signs by the age of 32.

75. Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.

76. When asked, this chimpanzee uses
Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a form of communication.
When asked, this chimpanzee uses
a sign to say it is a baby.

77. Computer Assisted Language
Others have shown that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991). Kanzi and Panbanish developed vocabulary for hundreds of words and phrases.
Copyright of Great Ape Trust of Iowa

78. Allen and Beatrix Gardner: Washoe Hypothesis
As you have seen, researchers have found out much about the way people learn by studying the ways in which animals learn. Studies on chimpanzees have been particularly fascinating because of the relative complexity of things they can learn to do.
In 1969, Allen and Beatrix Gardner worked with a chimpanzee named Washoe. Earlier, the Gardners had tried unsuccessfully to train a chimpanzee to talk and had concluded that chimps do not possess the vocal mechanism for speech. They then hypothesized that chimps could be taught American Sign Language (ASL), the same language deaf people use. They based this hypothesis on their observations of chimpanzees’ social behavior and high level of intelligence.
Hypothesized that Washoe could learn American Sign Language

79. Gardner and Gardner: Methodology
Began to train Washoe at the age of 11 months
Training continued for 51 months
Washoe was treated like a deaf human child: lots of toys, routines, plenty of attention
Washoe learned 151 signs during this period
The Gardners began to train Washoe when she was 11 months old. They treated Washoe like a deaf human child, with a schedule of meals, naps, baths, and other activities. She had plenty of toys to play with and lots of attention. Over the course of 51 months of training, Washoe was able to learn 151 signs.

80. Gardner and Gardner: Results
Washoe learned by:
Having the Gardners placing her hands into the correct sign
Observation and imitation
Washoe was able to use her language skills to express emotions
The Gardners taught Washoe many of her signs by placing her hands into the correct shape and having her repeat that shape over and over. Washoe also learned signs by imitating the Gardners. For example, she learned to use the sign for toothbrush after seeing the Gardners make the sign several times before having Washoe brush her teeth.
The most remarkable evidence of learning came when Washoe was able to sign words for emotional states. For example, Washoe learned that one of her caregivers’ babies had died. She looked into that caregiver’s eyes and signed “cry” while touching the caregiver's cheek below her eye. She later signed “please person hug” to the caregiver. Washoe had previously experienced two unsuccessful pregnancies of her own.
Washoe learned to sign “toothbrush”: move the index finger horizontally back and forth across the mouth to simulate brushing

81. Gardner and Gardner: Results
Washoe eventually learned nearly 250 signs
Gardners’ hypothesis supported
Washoe continued to learn new signs after her official training period had ended. Her vocabulary eventually increased to nearly 250 signs.
The Gardners felt that their ability to train Washoe to use American Sign Language confirmed their hypothesis and concluded that Washoe showed definite signs of learning to communicate with language rather than simply imitating or “aping” what she saw.

82. Subsequent Studies on Apes
Koko the gorilla learned 1000 signs and 2000 spoken English words
Chimpanzees can communicate with each other in sign language
Chimpanzees can teach signs to each other
Subsequent studies have confirmed that great apes (particularly chimpanzees and gorillas) can learn to use sign language. A gorilla named Koko, for example, learned 1000 signs and could recognize 2000 spoken English words. Koko made up phrases such as “eye hat” to describe a mask. She was also spotted holding a long tube in front of her face while signing “elephant.”
In addition, some groups of chimpanzees have been able to teach each other to sign and have been observed signing to each other and to themselves when they don’t know researchers are watching them. For example, researchers have observed Washoe and her chimpanzee family having conversations about such topics as food and games.
Researchers intentionally avoided using sign language in front of Washoe’s adopted son, Loulis, for his first five years of life. He observed and imitated Washoe, however, and was able to learn sign language without human intervention.

83. Implications of Ape Language Studies for Humans
These experiments with animal language capabilities are not only fascinating in their own right, but also provide some clues about the development of human language. People may have first learned to communicate through gestures, much as chimpanzees and gorillas do. This might also explain why we’re so comfortable using gestures even while we’re also vocalizing and why deaf people learn sign language with ease. It appears that gesturing helps us communicate by expressing feelings and points that our words alone might not be able to make.
In fact, if you’re asked not to use any gestures while communicating, you’re likely to have difficulty remembering things you want to say. Try it with a friend—don’t move your hands at all and just concentrate on your words. Did it make it more difficult for you to have an effective conversation?
We all communicate through gestures as well as words
This may be the way human language originated
May explain why deaf people learn sign language readily

84. Criticism
Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a great deal of difficulty, unlike children who develop vocabularies at amazing rates.
Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key receives a reward. However, pigeons have not learned a language.
Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack syntax.
Presented with ambiguous information, people tend to see what they want to see.

85. Conclusions
If we say that animals can use meaningful sequences of signs to communicate a capability for language, our understanding would be naive… Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, “chimps do not develop language.”