1. Historical Linguistics: Change, reconstruction LING 400 Winter 2010

2. Overview Reconstruction Reconstruction –Time-depth –Conversative vs. innovative languages –Reconstruction and prehistory More historical change More historical change –Morphological, morphosyntactic –Semantic For further learning about historical linguistics: LING 454 please turn off your cell phone

3. Time-depth “Persian is an old language.” “Persian is an old language.” All (modern) daughters of proto-language have equal time-depth. All (modern) daughters of proto-language have equal time-depth.

4. Time-depth Proto-Indo-European: 5000-6000 years ago Proto-Indo-European: 5000-6000 years ago –Proto-Germanic: 2500-3500 Oldest IE written documents Oldest IE written documents –Hittite 1300 B.C. –Sanskrit 1200 B.C. –Greek 1000 B.C. (Mycenean earlier)

5. Reconstruction The comparative method The comparative method –assemble cognates –deduce proto-form, meaning “Reconstructible” “Reconstructible” –Not necessarily attested in all branches –*ēg ̤ w - ‘drink’  Hittite  Latin ēbrius ‘drunk’

6. A cognate set Sanskrit [snu ʂ ā́] ‘daughter-in-law’ Sanskrit [snu ʂ ā́] ‘daughter-in-law’ Old English [snoru] ‘daughter-in-law’ Old English [snoru] ‘daughter-in-law’ Old Church Slavonic [snŭxa] ‘daughter-in-law’ Old Church Slavonic [snŭxa] ‘daughter-in-law’ Latin [nurus] ‘daughter-in-law’ Latin [nurus] ‘daughter-in-law’ Greek [nuós] ‘daughter-in-law’ Greek [nuós] ‘daughter-in-law’ Armenian [nu] ‘bride, daughter-in-law’ Armenian [nu] ‘bride, daughter-in-law’ Albanian [nuse] ‘bride’ Albanian [nuse] ‘bride’

7. Reconstruction *sn… or *n…? ‘daughter-in-law’ *sn… or *n…? ‘daughter-in-law’ –Latin nix, niv- ‘snow’ –English snow –PIE *sneig ̤ w - ‘to snow’ vs. –Latin ne- ‘not’ –Old English ne ‘not’ –PIE *ne ‘not’ [u], OCS [ŭ], OE [o] < *u [u], OCS [ŭ], OE [o] < *u Medial *s? * ʂ ? r? Medial *s? * ʂ ? r? –Sanskrit *s > ʂ / u__ –Latin s > r/ V__V,  Germanic –Greek, Armenian *s > 0 / V__V … (ending, accent) … (ending, accent) PIE *snu | sos PIE *snu | sos ‘daughter-in-law’ or ‘bride’? ‘daughter-in-law’ or ‘bride’? –most early IE societies patriarchal and patrilocal –‘daughter-in-law’ in most; ‘bride’ restricted

8. Conservative vs. innovative Sanskrit [snu ʂ ā́] < *snu | sos Sanskrit [snu ʂ ā́] < *snu | sos –conserves [sn], [u]; accent –innovates *s > ʂ / u__ Albanian [nuse] ‘bride’ Albanian [nuse] ‘bride’ –conserves [u], medial [s] –innovates *s > 0 / __n, semantics

9. Reconstruction and prehistory Calvert Watkins: ‘the lexicon of a language remains the single most effective way of approaching and understanding the culture of its speakers…The reconstruction of vocabulary can offer a fuller, more interesting view of the culture of a prehistoric people than archaeology precisely because it includes nonmaterial culture.’ Calvert Watkins: ‘the lexicon of a language remains the single most effective way of approaching and understanding the culture of its speakers…The reconstruction of vocabulary can offer a fuller, more interesting view of the culture of a prehistoric people than archaeology precisely because it includes nonmaterial culture.’

10. Proto-Indo-European *med ̤ u- ‘mead, honey’ *med ̤ u- ‘mead, honey’ *daiwer- ‘husband’s brother’ *daiwer- ‘husband’s brother’ –*wife’s relatives *sneig ̤ w - ‘snow’ *sneig ̤ w - ‘snow’ *laks- ‘salmon’ (lox) *laks- ‘salmon’ (lox) *mori- ‘body of water; lake (?), sea (?)’ (mermaid) *mori- ‘body of water; lake (?), sea (?)’ (mermaid) *gr ̩ -no ‘grain’ (> corn) *gr ̩ -no ‘grain’ (> corn) *owi- ‘sheep’ (> ewe) *owi- ‘sheep’ (> ewe) *dem ə - ‘house, household’ *dem ə - ‘house, household’ –*dem( ə )- ‘to build’ (> timber) *k w el- ‘to revolve, go around’, *k w (e)-k w l-o- ‘wheel’ *k w el- ‘to revolve, go around’, *k w (e)-k w l-o- ‘wheel’

11. Historical linguistics 1786 Sir William Jones observed similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Old Persian 1786 Sir William Jones observed similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Old Persian 19 th century: reconstruction of PIE 19 th century: reconstruction of PIE 20 th century on 20 th century on –Hittite, Tocharian –Comparative method applicable elsewhere

12. Major branches of Athabaskan family 38 daughter languages

13. Language change Languages may change on various levels Languages may change on various levels –phonetics, phonology –morphology –syntax –semantics

14. Morphemes disappear PA Deg Xinag Witsuwit’en Tsek’ene PA Deg Xinag Witsuwit’en Tsek’ene ‘man’s daughter’ *-ts h e ʔ -[tθ h ɑʔ ] -[ts h ɛʔ ] -- ‘arm’ *-q ɑ̰ :ne ʔ -[qon] -- -[kònè ʔ ]

15. Paradigm leveling Elimination of irregularity among morphologically related forms Elimination of irregularity among morphologically related forms

16. Babine-CarrierWitsuwit’en progressivefutureprogressivefuture 1sS*i-s- *t h -i-s- i-s- t h - ɑ - s- 2sS * ɑ -n- *t h - ɑ -n- i-n- t h - ɑ - n- 3sS*i- *t h -i- i- th-ɑ-th-ɑ-th-ɑ-th-ɑ- ‘Leveled’ progressive paradigm (uniformly [i]) ‘Leveled’ future paradigm (uniformly [ ɑ ])

17. Semantic change Reduction (hyponym formation) Proto-Athabaskan Tsek’ene Proto-Athabaskan Tsek’ene *- ʁ ə m ‘snore, growl’ -[hxõ ̀ h] ‘snore’ *- ʁ ə m ‘snore, growl’ -[hxõ ̀ h] ‘snore’ Witsuwit’en Witsuwit’en *-nt ɑ̰ :c ‘dance’ -[ntec] ‘(white people) dance’ *-nt ɑ̰ :c ‘dance’ -[ntec] ‘(white people) dance’

18. Extension Hypernym formation Proto- Athabaskan Tsek’ene Proto- Athabaskan Tsek’ene *ci ̰ :ce: ‘blueberry’ ʧɪ ̀ ʧ e ‘berry’ *ci ̰ :ce: ‘blueberry’ ʧɪ ̀ ʧ e ‘berry’

19. Where was Proto- Athabaskan spoken? Michael Krauss Michael Krauss –the PA homeland (Urheimat) ‘was in eastern Alaska, interior, perhaps extending into Canada already.’

20. Considerations Deep vs. shallow differentiation Deep vs. shallow differentiation Location of related languages Location of related languages Reconstructed vocabulary Reconstructed vocabulary

21. Differentiation Deep differentiation: long occupation of territory Deep differentiation: long occupation of territory –Alaska, western BC Closely related: recent spread Closely related: recent spread –Mackenzie R. –Pacific Coast –Apachean

22. Na-Dene family

23. Related languages Usually nearby Usually nearby Eyak Eyak –mouth of Copper R. Tlingit Tlingit –Alaska panhandle

24. Reconstructed vocabulary Mountains and snow Mountains and snow –*ts ə ɬ ‘mountain’ –* ʔ a:ç ‘snowshoe’ –* ɬ u: ‘ice, icicle, glacier’ 1910 map Hudson Bay Mt., B.C.

25. Summary All languages change over time All languages change over time Change occurs at all levels of grammar Change occurs at all levels of grammar Earlier stages can often be reconstructed, with implications for prehistory Earlier stages can often be reconstructed, with implications for prehistory

26. Question Bronze Age 3300-1200 BC (bronze < copper+tin) Bronze Age 3300-1200 BC (bronze < copper+tin) –PIE *ajes- ‘copper or bronze’ (attested in Latin, Greek, Sanskrit) Iron Age (1300 BC on) (iron, steel) Iron Age (1300 BC on) (iron, steel) –*isarno ‘iron’ only attested in Germanic, Celtic Are *ajes and *isarno relevant to dating of PIE? (PIE estimated 5000-6000 BC.) Are *ajes and *isarno relevant to dating of PIE? (PIE estimated 5000-6000 BC.)