1. The Deaths of Stars

2. What Do You Think? Will the Sun someday cease to shine brightly? If so, how will this occur? What is a nova? How does it differ from a supernova? What are the origins of the carbon, silicon, oxygen, iron, uranium, and other heavy elements on Earth? What are cosmic rays? Where do they come from? What is a pulsar?

3. Low-Mass Stars Recall stars with a mass less than 0.4x M sun evolve to red dwarfs: all H is fused to He, stop fusion, and cool off Stars greater than 0.4x M sun evolve very differently When hydrogen shell fusion begins, energy causes star to expand and becomes a giant As star expands, its surface temperature decreases Mass is expelled into space in the form of stellar winds, which reduces the mass of the star Core helium fusion then begins, with stars less than 2.0x M sun undergoing a core helium flash Stars more than 2.0x M sun begin helium fusion gradually Cores are eventually converted into C and O and He fusion stops Final destiny of stars depends on mass Two mass ranges to consider 0.4 – 8.0x M sun and stars greater than 8.0x M sun

4. Low-Mass (0.4 – 8.0x M sun ) Stars C and O atoms require a temp. of at least 600 million K to fuse Core of low-mass stars only reaches about 200 million K so fusion of C and O does not occur As He is used up, the inner regions of the star contract, compressing, and heating the shell of He just outside the core Helium shell fusion begins outside of the core (H shell fusion is also occurring) Once helium shell fusion starts, the new outpouring of energy pushes the star outward Star is now called an AGB (asymptotic giant branch) star, and becomes brighter than ever before Star expands to a radius of about 1 AU and are now so bright that they are low-temperature, red supergiants

5. AGB stars Are destined to self destruct All giant stars emit mass through solar winds AGB stars reduce their mass significantly, greater than 30% of their mass is lost Loss of mass decreases the force of gravity available to compress the star’s core AGB star is compressed just enough to cause its core to become degenerate Growing repulsive force between electrons stops its contraction Core temp does not reach 600 million K to fuse C or O so no further core fusion occurs

6. Thermal Runaway Final stage through which a low mass star passes begins with a thermal runaway – a rapid rise in temp in the helium shell A helium shell flash occurs, expanding the star and decreasing the shell temp, slowing the rate of fusion Several helium flashes occur as its helium shell thickens Eventually, outer gases are cool enough for the electrons and ions to recombine Mass is lost from the star and the core becomes visible Planetary nebula: the luminous dust and gas ejected from the star Such nebulae are quite common in our galaxy – at least 1800 Ultimate fate of our Sun Gas expulsion is very slow – not explosive at all

7. Planetary Nebulae Outflowing gases take a variety of shapes Helix Nebula, Hourglass Nebula, Red Spider Nebula, etc. Are short-lived Average 50,000 years After that time, gases are spread over distances so far that it fades from view Gases mix with and become part of the interstellar medium

8. White Dwarfs Burned-out cores of low-mass stars become white dwarfs Fate of our Sun’s core Roughly the size of Earth, covered with a thin coating of hydrogen and helium Very dense (10 9 kg/m 3 ): a teaspoonful of white dwarf matter on Earth would weigh 5 tons Over time, an isolated white dwarf radiates its energy into space After billions of years, it cools enough so its C and O solidify

9. Nova Occurs if a white dwarf is in a binary system The other star fills its Roche lobe and slowly deposits fresh H into the white dwarf New mass covers the surface of the white dwarf, causing its temp and pressure to increase At 10 7 K, fusion ignites in the layer – the star suddenly becomes brighter and gas is blown throughout the sky (nova) After a nova, fusion stops in the white dwarf

10. Type Ia Supernova Normal nova: just removes H and He from the surface of a white dwarf Sometimes, the star itself is blown apart Type Ia Supernova: occurs with a white dwarf in a semidetached binary system The companion star deposits lots of mass onto the white dwarf The increased pressure causes carbon fusion to begin in the core Rate of C fusion increases dramatically and the star blows up Very bright