1. Motivation and Emotion Chapters 11 and 12

2. Motivation and Emotion
Motive
Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior
Emotion
Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

3. Motivational Concepts

4. Instincts and Evolutionary Behavior
Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species and unlearned
Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because
Most important human behavior is learned
Human behavior is rarely inflexible
Human behavior is directed by both physiological needs AND by psychological wants

5. Drive-Reduction Theory
Theory that took the place of instinct theory
Drive
A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs
Drive Reduction Theory states that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis
Sequence of events: lack of homeostasis, need, drive, motivation to act, homeostasis
Primary drive: Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state
Secondary drive: Learned drive, such as ambition

6. Arousal Theory
People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment
Yerkes-Dodson law
States that there is an optimal level or arousal for best performance on any task
The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

7. Yerkes-Dodson Law

8. Incentive Theory External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior
We are often unaware of the incentive
Examples
Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry
Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

9. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself
Children playing is an example
Extrinsic motivation
Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment
A bonus program is an example
Dangers of providing extrinsic motivation for intrinsically motivated activities?

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives
Physiological needs
Safety needs
Belongingness needs
Esteem needs
Self-actualization needs

11. Hunger

12. Biological Factors - Neurological
Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as a hunger center, triggering the onset of eating
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior
Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) influences the drive to eat specific foods
In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

13. Biological Factors - Chemical
Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food
Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety
Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety, but it takes minutes! EAT SLOWLY!

14. Biological Factors - Genetics
OB-1/Chromosome 15
15th chromosome may carry a gene that predisposes some people to obesity
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
How quickly you burn calories may be genetically influenced
Set Point Theory
Body has a “set” weight it wants to be.
Body has a set number of fat cells which shrink with weight loss and enlarge with weight gain, but the number does not change.
Efforts to go below this are seen by body as a threat, and body will compensate by slowing metabolic rate

15. Cultural and Environmental Factors
Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning
For example, time of day can trigger the body to become hungry
Even the SMELL of food may trigger biological processes that instigate hunger!
Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume
Social facilitation – we eat when others are eating
Unit bias – what is a “serving size?”

16. Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa About 1% of adolescents afflicted
Intense fear of weight gain
Distorted body image
Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight
Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women)
About 1% of adolescents afflicted
Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-class females

17. Karen Carpenter ( )

18. Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa
Recurrent episodes of binge eating
Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting
Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months
Body shape and weight overly influence self-image
Symptoms occur independent of anorexia
About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted
Dying to be Thin Clip (“Ana” and “Mia”)
Binge Eating Disorder – binging without purging

19. Summary of Hunger Motivation

20. Obesity
Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today
An estimated 66% of Americans are obese
Obesity can lead to increased risk for
Hypertension
Cardiovascular disease
Diabetes
Sleep apnea
Tendency may be inherited

21. Thirst

22. Thirst Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive
Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells
External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

23. Sexual Motivation

24. Human Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson, 1966)
Orgasm
Resolution
Excitement
Plateau
Woh 

25. Biological Factors
Hypothalamus controls the release of luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the release of androgens and estrogens.
Testosterone
Important in both men and women in early development
Men and women seem to need some to be interested in sex, but as long as it is there its role in regulating sexual activity is minimal
Estrogens
Female hormones that peak during ovulation
Interestingly, when charting sexual activity, women are more receptive to sex during ovulation
Pheromones
Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

26. The Psychology of Sex
Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology
There are many reasons why people have sex
External Stimuli
Both men and women tend to become aroused when exposed to sexually explicit material
Repeated exposure to the same stimuli lessens arousal over time
Imagined Stimuli
Sexual arousal while dreaming in both sexes
Sexual fantasies are prevalent, but may not be indicative of desires in real life

27. The Psychology of Sex The Kinsey Reports
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
Kinsey Scale and human sexuality (0 to 6 the “X” was added later for asexual)
Controversial methods?
Prison population
Male prostitutes
10% ??

28. The Psychology of Sex Biological influences: sexual maturity
sex hormones
sexual orientation
Psychological influences:
exposure to stimulating
conditions
sexual fantasies
Sexual motivation
Social-cultural influences:
family and society values
religious and personal values
cultural expectations
media

29. Adolescent Sexuality Teen Pregnancy
US has a relatively high rate of teen pregnancy and abortion
Some explanations include a lack of knowledge about sex and birth control, substance use, and lack of media reinforcement of protected sex
Sexually Transmitted Infections/STDs
For reasons listed above, STIs are also prevalent amongst young people (2/3 of all new infections occur in population under 25)
Many people do not know the risks of certain sexual practices and do not think about the number of partners their partner has had

30. Sexual Orientation
Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest
Heterosexual
Sexual attraction to opposite sex
Homosexual
Sexual attraction to same sex
Bisexual
Sexual attraction to both sexes
Approximately 3-4% of men and 1-2% of women are gay/lesbian.
Sexuality is enduring over time and cannot be “changed”
Women’s sexuality seems to be more “fluid” than men’s (“erotic plasticity”)
Nature and nurture explain human sexuality

31. Sexual Orientation

33. Secondary Drives: Stimulus Motives
Stimulus motives push us to investigate or to change our environment
Example stimulus motives include:
Exploration and curiosity
E.g. Where does that path lead? How does the internet work?
Why? An emotion? An acceptable expression of sex drive? Part of the drive to find the meaning of life?
Manipulation and contact
E.g. DO NOT TOUCH signs – why are they necessary?
The need to touch, handle, or play with objects to feel satisfied.

34. Harlow’s Monkeys
Harry Harlow (1958) wanted to find out why infant monkeys bonded with their mother.
Was the bond driven by a need for food (nursing) or something else?
Harlow’s experiment
Impact of denying infant monkeys physical comfort from their mother
Illustrates contact motive

35. Other Motives: Social Motives
Social motives are those which involve how we are driven to relate to others. They include the following:
Aggression
Achievement
Affiliation
David McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory (3 Needs Theory; learned Needs Theory)
Achievement (nAch) – seek moderately challenging tasks where they feel accomplished AND successful
Affiliation (nAff) – Need harmonious relationships with others to feel accepted and valued
Power (nPow)
Personal power – want to control others (seen as negative)
Institutional Power – like organizing people to achieve the common goals

36. Social Motives: Aggression
Intent is a key element of aggression – behavior is aimed at DOING HARM to others
Why are we aggressive?
Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role
Frustration-Aggression Theory?
Social Learning?
Aggression and culture
Collectivist cultures are less aggressive than individualistic cultures
Crime in the US?
Gender and aggression
Males are more physically aggressive
Nature…or nurture?

37. Social Motives: Achievement
Motivation to excel at a task
Desire is for achievement for its own sake
Work and Family Orientation Scale (WOFO)
Work orientation, mastery, competitiveness
Highest GPA – high mastery and work orientation, lower competitiveness – WHY?

38. Social Motives: Affiliation
Motivation to be with others
Rats, monkeys and humans in stressful situations all feel a reduction in anxiety and fear when in the presence of another member of their species
Evolutionary value? Learned behavior?

39. Emotions

40. Defining Emotion Emotion includes the following:
A subjective conscious experience or cognitive component
Bodily or physiological arousal
Overt or behavioral expressions
Emotional reactions are linked with the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic/parasympathetic NS
Autonomic responses accompanying emotion are controlled by the brain

41. Measuring Emotional Responses
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
GSR measures increased electrical conductivity of skin that occurs when sweat glands increase activity
GSR used to measure autonomic arousal and therefore emotional reactions
Polygraph/Lie Detector
Assumes there is a link between lying and emotions
Measures respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and GSR
Does not detect lies, but rather nervousness
Only accurate about 2/3 of the time – some people do not become nervous when they lie!

42. Basic Emotions Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions
Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust
Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance
Other (secondary) emotions are the
composites of primary emotions
Surprise + Sadness = Disappointment
Fear + Acceptance = Submission

43. Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

44. Basic Emotions
Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers
Revised model of basic emotions includes:
Happiness
Surprise
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Anger

45. Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory
Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful situation.  You then experience fear.

46. Theories of Emotion Cannon-Bard theory
Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously
EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  At the same time as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear.

47. Contemporary Theories of Emotion
Schachter-Singer Theory/2-Factor
Environment gives us clues that help us interpret physiological reaction
EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself.  This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear.

48. Contemporary Theories of Emotion
Izard’s Facial Feedback Theory
Cognitive feedback is NOT necessary: emotion provoked by the faces/body posture that results from an environmental stimulus
Based on five different “universal” facial expressions: happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, and fear-surprise
EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You make a shocked face and the movement of these muscles sends signals to your brain to perceive this as fear.

49. Theories of Emotion

50. Nonverbal Communication of Emotion
Voice quality
Facial expression and Ekman’s work
Body language
Posture
The way we move communicates information
Personal space
Explicit acts
Slamming doors
Destroying stuff
Emblems

51. Facial Expression Activity
Use the list of six basic emotions below to label the faces of both the human and robot faces on your worksheet. You will use each of the six once for each set of faces.
Happiness
Sadness
Fear
Surprise
Anger
Disgust

52. Gestures Exercise

54. Gender, Culture and Emotion

55. Gender and Emotion
Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently
Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation
Anger
Men tend to direct their anger outward
Women tend to direct their anger inward
Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

56. Culture and Emotion
Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms
Some emotional displays are universal
Display rules
Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate
Etre et Avoir clip (1:11)
Intensification, deintensification, masking, neutralizing

57. Stress and Health
Stress is the manner in which we respond to events perceived as threatening or challenging
Stress has an impact on our mood, our behavior and our health
Behavioral medicine integrates what we know of human behavior and medicine to better understand health and disease
Health psychology involves the contribution of psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine

58. Stress Response Cannon’s fight-or-flight response
Epinephrine and norepinephrine released from adrenal glands
Sympathetic nervous system kicks in
Hypothalamus and pituitary control cortisols released from adrenal cortex
Withdrawal
“Tend and befriend” (Shelley Taylor)
Gender and stress
Women more likely to nurture and band together
Men more likely to withdraw and turn to alcohol
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Phase 1: Alarm (prepare to cope)
Phase 2: Resistance (actual coping)
Phase 3: Exhaustion (resources depleted)

59. Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

60. Sources of Stress: Stressors
Catastrophes and PTSD
Change
Holmes and Rahe and the SRRS
Even “good” changes can be stressful!
Pressure: need to “step it up”
Frustration: being prevented from reaching goal
Conflict: simultaneous existence of incompatible demands/goals
Approach-approach – equally attracted to two appealing goals
Approach-avoidance – both attracted and repelled by the same goal
Avoidance-avoidance – equally repulsed by two possibilities

61. Stress and Health “Type A” vs. “Type B” (Friedman and Rosenman)
Type A: reactive, competitive, impatient, motivated, aggressive and easily angered – susceptible to CHD
Type B: easy going, mellow – much less susceptible to CHD
Pessimism makes you twice as likely to develop CHD
Depression also increases CHD risk
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
Studies relationship between nervous, endocrine and immune systems
Stress and AIDS
Stress and cancer

62. Coping with Stress Perceived feelings of control Optimism
Social support
Exercise
Relaxation/Meditation
Biofeedback
Spirituality