1. The Burden of Modernization: 1876-1915 Chapters 7 and 8 Public Education in the United States Ashleigh Dunn 02/26/11

2. Introduction: 1876 First tier of public education solid in the northern and western states First tier of public education solid in the northern and western states Provided minimum of common schooling for the majority of white children. Provided minimum of common schooling for the majority of white children. Idea of free universal elementary education accepted and embedded in laws in most states Idea of free universal elementary education accepted and embedded in laws in most states Goals: compulsory, secular and common for whites Goals: compulsory, secular and common for whites Still producing segregated schools in the South and some in North Still producing segregated schools in the South and some in North Secondary Education: still private academies Secondary Education: still private academies Resistance to public secondary education Resistance to public secondary education

3. Introduction: by 1926 Modernization Process Modernization Process Industrial urbanization, secularization, power of state and federal govts, and citizen participation in politics Industrial urbanization, secularization, power of state and federal govts, and citizen participation in politics Growth of corporations and cities: people began to lose confidence in local govt. to solve their problems Growth of corporations and cities: people began to lose confidence in local govt. to solve their problems Result: Rapid, confused expansion of 2nd and 3rd tiers of public education, all but replace private academies. Result: Rapid, confused expansion of 2nd and 3rd tiers of public education, all but replace private academies. Public education Public education aspects of large-scale organization, more secular and scientific, practical and vocational, differentiated and diversified and torn between achievement vs. learner-oriented pedagogy. aspects of large-scale organization, more secular and scientific, practical and vocational, differentiated and diversified and torn between achievement vs. learner-oriented pedagogy.

4. Pushes to coherence: Ch 7 Due to tensions: educators tried to find a way to unify public education Due to tensions: educators tried to find a way to unify public education 1. Push to build “thorough and efficient systems” 2. Standardize curriculum 3. “social efficiency” prime goal

5. Gilded Age: Last of 19 th century Populism Populism Labor Unions Labor Unions supported public education for the economic advantages supported public education for the economic advantages Wanted technical and agricultural education Wanted technical and agricultural education Were defeated in national election of 1896 when McKinley won Were defeated in national election of 1896 when McKinley won Middle-Class Liberalism Middle-Class Liberalism Believed in equal opportunity, reward for merit and faith in social progress of govt. of limited power Believed in equal opportunity, reward for merit and faith in social progress of govt. of limited power Wanted civil service reform to replace corrupt party bosses Wanted civil service reform to replace corrupt party bosses Failure: made possible for the movement of Progressivism Failure: made possible for the movement of Progressivism

6. Progressive Era: Reform Push toward coherence: turn of the century Push toward coherence: turn of the century “thorough and efficient” systems of schools “thorough and efficient” systems of schools Led by middle-class professionals and WASPs Led by middle-class professionals and WASPs 1. Business-oriented progressives = social control 2. Welfare-oriented progressives = social service Duplicated structure of large-scale organizations Duplicated structure of large-scale organizations Wanted to dec. power of local political bosses Wanted to dec. power of local political bosses Centralization of administration Centralization of administration Were successful! Were successful!

7. Social and National Cohesion Compulsory Attendance: by 1918 all states Compulsory Attendance: by 1918 all states 1. Americanization Nationalism Nationalism Immigrant assimilation Immigrant assimilation 2. Abolish child labor Result rapid industrialization Result rapid industrialization Couldn’t pass laws to abolish so used the school system Couldn’t pass laws to abolish so used the school system No national legislation: biggest failure of Progressives No national legislation: biggest failure of Progressives

8. Academic Coherence 1. Mental discipline The Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies of the National Education Association (1893) The Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies of the National Education Association (1893) 4 yrs of high school was small percentage 4 yrs of high school was small percentage all courses in high school to provide the same mental discipline for college and non-college bound all courses in high school to provide the same mental discipline for college and non-college bound Reports had a standardizing effect Reports had a standardizing effect Not all students were req. same curriculums Not all students were req. same curriculums Were Wrong because Enrollment increased dramatically Were Wrong because Enrollment increased dramatically

9. Academic Coherence 2. Social efficiency “Efficiency as economy” “Efficiency as economy” Goal: not to gain knowledge but to prepare individual for role in capitalist society Goal: not to gain knowledge but to prepare individual for role in capitalist society Classify students to presumed futures with distinct curriculum Classify students to presumed futures with distinct curriculum College prep, vocational or general College prep, vocational or general How public education would be useful to the “daily lives” of students How public education would be useful to the “daily lives” of students

10. Academic Coherence 3. Civic responsibility “Efficiency as social service” “Efficiency as social service” NEA’s Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education NEA’s Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education 1918 Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education 1918 Health, command of fundamental process, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure and ethical character. Health, command of fundamental process, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure and ethical character. Once again broaden social role of education Once again broaden social role of education Citizenship task of Social studies Citizenship task of Social studies History, civics and govt. AND concepts of sociology and economics History, civics and govt. AND concepts of sociology and economics

11. Pulls to Differentiation: Ch 8 Gilded and Progressive eras coped with modernization vs. pluralism Gilded and Progressive eras coped with modernization vs. pluralism Winner modernization Winner modernization Coherence in organization and curriculum Coherence in organization and curriculum Middle of 20 th century: pulls to differentiate Middle of 20 th century: pulls to differentiate Diversity to meet different needs of different groups of children Diversity to meet different needs of different groups of children

12. Pull of Differentiation 1. Learner-centered curriculum: pay attention to individual differences Promote self-fulfillment Promote self-fulfillment 2. Demand for schools to face dual economic realities: Vocational Education Need for skilled and trained workers Need for skilled and trained workers Large number of persons who couldn’t earn a living unless trained to do so Large number of persons who couldn’t earn a living unless trained to do so 3. Pathologies of Pluralism: Ch. 9

13. Individual Differentiation 1. Learner-Oriented Progressive Theory Colonel Francis Parker Colonel Francis Parker Prime objective of schoolings was development of the individual Prime objective of schoolings was development of the individual “teaching of things, and not words alone” “teaching of things, and not words alone” Stresses child’s spontaneity, joy and happiness in learning Stresses child’s spontaneity, joy and happiness in learning John Dewey John Dewey Democracy and Education 1916 – manual training for all, history and literatures start early, formal subjects reading, writing, spelling and numbers instruments not isolated Democracy and Education 1916 – manual training for all, history and literatures start early, formal subjects reading, writing, spelling and numbers instruments not isolated Main contribution: Individuality developed in a democratic social environment. Main contribution: Individuality developed in a democratic social environment.

14. Individual Differentiation 2. Conservative Influence of Educational Psychologists Supported idea of individual development Supported idea of individual development Testing movements: Middle-Class Bias Testing movements: Middle-Class Bias Claimed results proved inferiority of non-whites and of immigrants and showed strong correlation between social class and native intelligence. Claimed results proved inferiority of non-whites and of immigrants and showed strong correlation between social class and native intelligence. Assumed inequality and that schools should help the less child adjust to these realities Assumed inequality and that schools should help the less child adjust to these realities Academic Respectability Academic Respectability Education psychologists wanted to be respected by the “pure psychology” as a hard science, therefore not too practical or applicable Education psychologists wanted to be respected by the “pure psychology” as a hard science, therefore not too practical or applicable 3. Ambiguity of “Progressive” Sometimes Social Reform Sometimes Social Reform More often Child-Centered More often Child-Centered

15. Vocational Differentiation Manual Training Movement Manual Training Movement Response to industrialism: manual training in North and “industrial education” for blacks in South Response to industrialism: manual training in North and “industrial education” for blacks in South Better balance between mental culture and manual skill in public schools Better balance between mental culture and manual skill in public schools Used “pedagogical reform” rather than benefit for employer Used “pedagogical reform” rather than benefit for employer Appealed to working-class children. Appealed to working-class children. Labor unions Labor unions Controlled apprenticeship and didn’t want to lose control Controlled apprenticeship and didn’t want to lose control Educators Stumbling Block Educators Stumbling Block William T. Harris (superintendent of St. Louis)– argued manual training would NOT provide the kind of intellectual discipline needed in the modern world William T. Harris (superintendent of St. Louis)– argued manual training would NOT provide the kind of intellectual discipline needed in the modern world

16. Vocational Differentiation Industrial Education in the South – blacks should accept harsh reality to inequality Industrial Education in the South – blacks should accept harsh reality to inequality Hampton, Tuskegee and Booker T. Washington Hampton, Tuskegee and Booker T. Washington “industrial education” Hampton Institute and Tuskegee Institute. Believed would be served best by practical education “industrial education” Hampton Institute and Tuskegee Institute. Believed would be served best by practical education Harris again battled: would make race inequality as class inequality would occur with whites. Harris again battled: would make race inequality as class inequality would occur with whites. W. E. B. Du Bois W. E. B. Du Bois Attacked Washington for accepting a segregated second-class citizenship and education Attacked Washington for accepting a segregated second-class citizenship and education “talented tenth” “talented tenth” “ I insist that the object of all true education is not to make men carpenters, it is to make carpenters men…” “ I insist that the object of all true education is not to make men carpenters, it is to make carpenters men…” Movement deserted when educational reform turned into class-oriented campaign. Movement deserted when educational reform turned into class-oriented campaign.

17. Vocational Differentiation Victory of Vocational Education Victory of Vocational Education NAM – National Association of Manufacturers NAM – National Association of Manufacturers Supported Germany’s trade school Supported Germany’s trade school Provide opportunity for jobs Provide opportunity for jobs Would break the hold of apprenticeship by unions Would break the hold of apprenticeship by unions 3 groups of students: 1) abstract-minded, hand-minded, in between. 3 groups of students: 1) abstract-minded, hand-minded, in between. Create specialized trade schools Create specialized trade schools Labor’s Reaction - AFL Labor’s Reaction - AFL Joined idea of vocational education but opposed idea of sep. schools Joined idea of vocational education but opposed idea of sep. schools Wanted to prevent working class from being segregated to second- class schools Wanted to prevent working class from being segregated to second- class schools Result: The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 Result: The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 Federal aid to public education for vocation. Federal aid to public education for vocation. Match dollar for dollar Match dollar for dollar

18. Vocational Differentiation Ideological Debate over Vocational Education Ideological Debate over Vocational Education Charles W. Eliot on a Class Society Charles W. Eliot on a Class Society With freedom comes inequality With freedom comes inequality Agreed with separate trade schools Agreed with separate trade schools Proposal to “classify elementary children” Proposal to “classify elementary children” A Divided NEA A Divided NEA The Cardinal Principles The Cardinal Principles Vocation was one of the principals, but rejected separate system Vocation was one of the principals, but rejected separate system Threat of a dual system in Illinois – bill was defeated Threat of a dual system in Illinois – bill was defeated

19. Vocational Differentiation The Compromise: Differentiated Courses, Not schools The Compromise: Differentiated Courses, Not schools Technology and Youth Labor Market Technology and Youth Labor Market Decreased need of child labor, machines could do the work Decreased need of child labor, machines could do the work Made school more attractive and increased rentention Made school more attractive and increased rentention

20. Vocational Differentiation Uniqueness of US School System Uniqueness of US School System Different from European countries? No separate vocational system but did we still channel lower-class children into vocational courses? Different from European countries? No separate vocational system but did we still channel lower-class children into vocational courses?

21. Summary Modernization Modernization Cohesion: Due to tensions: educators tried to find a way to unify public education Cohesion: Due to tensions: educators tried to find a way to unify public education 1. Push to build “thorough and efficient systems” 2. Standardize curriculum 3. “social efficiency” prime goal Differentiation Differentiation 1. Learner-centered curriculum: pay attention to individual differences 2. Demand for schools to face dual economic realities: Vocational Education 3. Pathologies of Pluralism: Ch. 9