1. Internationalisation, Globalisation and the Knowledge Economy
THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT: GLOBALISATION, INTERNATIONALISATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION
Module C/Unit 2:
Internationalisation, Globalisation and
the Knowledge Economy
Peter Maassen; 21 November 2006

2. Globalisation and Higher Education
Key issues (from the globalisation debate):
Flows, networks and ICT
Changing role of the nation state: deregulation, privatisation and liberalisation
Convergence and/or divergence
Role of stakeholders (incl. anti-globalists)
Flows:
free mobility (to be distinguished from organised mobility on the basis of bi or multilateral agreements between countries) is not new, but has increased a lot (forecast: 1.8m in 2000 to 2.8m in 2010 and 4.8m in 2025) as as result of the overall growing demand for higher education (40m in 1974 to 80m in 1995, forecast: 150m in 2025).
These flows are global although clear patterns exist: east to west and south to north.
Brain drain implications
”Moving education not people”. ICT supported distance education. The promise of reducing costs. The hype of the e-learning market.
In Held’s terms: transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations (e.g. institution, student, content): radiply broadening geographical scale of educational provision, increasing intensity and speed of transnational flows, etc.
Changing role of the nation state:
(deliberate) deregulation, privatisation and liberalisation (GATS) (Castells)
(not deliberate / challenging) lack of control on TNE (QA)
Convergence & divergence:
Systems vs outcomes: e.g. Bologna vs diversification
HE’s anti-globlisation movenment(s): students, unions, and other interest groups (academics).

3. Globalisation and Internationalisation
Conceptual difference : interconnected - integrated.
Internationalisation: increasing interconnectedness of national education systems (activities) without the boundaries between them or the authority of national governments over these systems being brought into question
Globalisation: increasing integration of flows and processes over and through boundaries that leads to a transformation in the spatial organisation of social relations, changing/challenging the role of the nation state.
See also Ulrich Teichler’s definitions on page 247 of your reader!
Van der Wende, 2002, p

4. Internationalisation or globalisation: Views on internationalisation:
Scott
Van der Wende
Marginson
Inter–nationalisation
Internationalization reflected – and maybe still reflects – a world order dominated by nation states. (1998: 126)
Universities are national institutions, created to fulfil national purposes. (1998:113)
Internationalisation in higher education means “including any systematic, sustained effort aimed at making higher education (more) responsive to the requirements and challenges related to the globalisation of societies, economy and labour markets (1997)
The term ‘internationalisation’ describes the growth of relations between nations and between cultures. (2000a)

5. Internationalisation or globalisation: Views on globalisation:
Scott
Van der Wende
Marginson
Globalisation
Globalisation ignores, transcends and is even actively hostile to nation states. (2001)
(…) But globalization can be given a much wider meaning - one that emphasizes the impact of global environment changes, the threat of social and political conflicts that can not be walled off by tough immigration or asylum policies or policed by superpowers, and the growth of hybrid world cultures created by the mingling of global-brand culture and indigenous tradition. (1998: 122)
Globalisation generally relates to the process of increasing convergence and interdependence of economies and to the liberalisation of trade and markets. Besides, the cultural component of globalisation is recognised, encouraging at the same time the establishment of a (usually western) global-brand culture, as well as the spread of more indigenous traditions. From the political perspective, the globalisation literature claims that the process of globalisation will turn nation states into powerless institutions and that ultimately their role will vanish (2001).
Globalisation does not create a single political world – it does not abolish the nation state – but it changes the condition in which nation states operate (2000a)
Universities are among the most globalised of institutions (2000b: 8)
It is as much about the cross-global movement of people and ideas as about markets and money, and more about networks than about patterns off comodity trade or off-shore production(2000b, p. 47)

6. Internationalisation or globalisation: Views on their relation:
Scott
Van der Wende
Marginson
Relation
Globalization can not be regarded simply as a higher form of internationalization. Instead of their relationship being seen as linear or cumulative, it may actually be dialectical. In a sense the new globalization may be the rival of the old internationalization (2001)
Both the terms globalisation and internationalisation are used to identify the increasing international activities and outreach of higher education (2001)
Internationalisation can be seen as a response to globalisation (2001)
Globalisation does not refer to the growing importance of ‘international’ relations, relations between nations, per se… the term ‘globalisation is reserved here for the growing role of world systems

7. Internationalisation or globalisation: Views on their relation:
According to Slaughter (1999), globalization has at least four far-reaching implications for higher education: (1) the constriction of monies available for discretionary activities, such as postsecondary education, (2) the growing importance of techno-science and fields closely involved with markets (3) the tightening relationship between multinational corporations and state agencies, and (4) the global intellectual property strategies.

8. Globalisation and Internationalisation in HE
”Not all universities are international, but all universities are subject to the same process of globalisation, partly as objects, victims even, but partly also as subjects, or key agents of globalisation” (Scott, 1998).

9. Globalisation and Internationalisation in HE (2)
Perceptions:
Globalisation: external process, unsteerable, competition, less compatible with academic values (commercialisation, trade, reduced academic freedom)
Internationalisation: policy process, cooperation, compatible with academic values (quality, cultural diversity, personal development)
Internationalisation as a respons to globalisation (e.g. cooperation for better competition)
Globalisation (increasing competition and a global division of labour) as a rival of the ”old” internationalisation.

10. Globalisation and Internationalisation in HE (3)
Policy agendas compared:
Bologna (internationalisation) and WTO/GATS (globalisation)
Different institutional arrangements
Different views on HE as a public/private good
Cooperation vs Competition

11. Linkages, connections and flows
Student and staff mobility
Increase in numbers
Changing rationales
Changing patterns
Flows of educational services
Cooperative programmes
‘Offshore’ education
Distance education
On-line provision of education
Increase of linkages
Increased linkages
The changing nature of linkages

12. Growth of foreign students foreign students enrolled in the US, 1955-2000 (x 1000)
Source: Institute for International Education (2000)

13. Growth of foreign students over the last 20 years (1990 = 100)
Source: OECD

14. Patterns of flows
Source: OECD

15. Rationales in cross border delivery
Shift in approaches to internationalisation
Mutual understanding approach
Revenue generating approach
Skilled migration approach
Capacity building approach
Also it has caused a shift in the rationale for cross-border edcuation and the institutional incentives to engage in cross-border education
See document ‘rationales cbc’
Approaches are not mutually exclusive. See next slide

16. Linkages, connections and flows
Student and staff mobility
Increase in numbers
Changing rationales
Changing geographies
Flows of educational services
Cooperative programmes
‘Offshore’ education
Distance education
On-line provision of education
Increase of linkages
Increased linkages
The changing nature of linkages

17. Types of Cross-border education activities
Main forms
Examples
Size
1. People
Students/trainees
Student mobility
- Full study abroad for a foreign degree or qualification
- Part of academic partnership for home degree or joint degree
Probably the largest share of crossborder education
Professors/trainers
Academic/trainer mobility
- For professional development
- As part of an academic partnership
- Employment in a foreign university
- To teach in a branch institution abroad
An old tradition in the education sector, which should grow given the emphasis on mobility of
professionals and internationalisation of education more generally
2. Programmes
Educational programmes
Academic partnerships
E-learning
- Joint course or programme with a foreign institution
- E-learning programmes
- Selling/franchising a course to a foreign institution
Academic partnerships represent the largest share of these activities
E-learning and franchising are small but rapidly growing activities
3. Institutions/providers
Foreign campuses
Foreign investments
- Opening of a foreign campus
- Buying (part of) a foreign educational institution
- Creation of an educational provider abroad
A trend increasing very quickly from a modest starting point
Knight (2003b) and OECD

18. Linkages, connections and flows
Student and staff mobility
Increase in numbers
Changing rationales
Changing geographies
Flows of educational services
Cooperative programmes
‘Offshore’ education
Distance education
On-line provision of education
Increase of linkages
Increased linkages
The changing nature of linkages

19. The changing nature of international linkages
Dimensions
Members:
From bilateral to multilateral
Membership:
From open to restricted
Interests:
From collective to individual interests of institutions
Activities:
From single activities to multiple disciplines & themes
Agency
From academic to leadership driven
Intensity
From connections to coordination to integration