1. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific and Political Elites Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences School of Medical Education Strategic Policy Sessions: 17

2. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Definitions Research: “any systematic effort to increase the stock of knowledge” Policy: a “purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actors” Evidence: “the available information supporting or otherwise a belief or proposition” Evidence-based Policy: “public policy informed by rigorously established evidence”.

3. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Policy Processes Identify the problem Commission research Analyse the results Choose the best option Establish the policy Evaluation Implement the policy

4. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Monitoring and Evaluation Agenda Setting Decision Making Policy Implementation Policy Formulation Policy Processes Civil Society Donors Cabinet Parliament Ministries Private Sector

5. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Different Notions of Evidence Colloquial (Contextual) Anything that seems reasonable Policy relevant Timely Clear Message Policy Makers’ Evidence Source: Phil Davies Impact to Insight Meeting, ODI, 2005 ‘Scientific’ (Context free) Proven empirically Theoretically driven As long as it takes Caveats and qualifications Researchers’ Evidence

6. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Existing theory 1. Linear model 2. Percolation model, Weiss 3. Tipping point model, Gladwell 4. ‘Context, evidence, links’ framework, ODI 5. Policy narratives, Roe 6. Systems model (NSI) 7. External forces, Lindquist 8. ‘Room for manoeuvre’, Clay & Schaffer 9. ‘Street level bureaucrats’, Lipsky 10. Policy as social experiments, Rondinelli 11. Policy Streams & Windows, Kingdon 12. Disjointed incrementalism, Lindquist 13. The ‘tipping point’, Gladwell 14. Crisis model, Kuhn 15. ‘Framework of possible thought’, Chomsky 16. Variables for Credibility, Beach 17. The source is as important as content, Gladwell 18. Linear model of communication, Shannon 19. Interactive model, 20. Simple and surprising stories, Communication Theory 21. Provide solutions, Marketing I 22. Find the right packaging, Marketing II 23. Elicit a response, Kottler 24. Translation of technology, Volkow 25. Epistemic communities 26. Policy communities 27. Advocacy coalitions etc, Pross 28. Negotiation through networks, Sebattier 29. Shadow networks, Klickert 30. Chains of accountability, Fine 31. Communication for social change, Rockefeller 32. Wheels and webs, Chapman & Fisher X

7. Dr. Shahram Yazdani A Practical Framework External Influences political context evidence links Politics and Policymaking Media, Advocacy, Networking Research, learning & thinking Scientific information exchange & validation Policy analysis, & research Campaigning, Lobbying

8. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 8 AudienceDecision-MakerResearch Needs Industrial Clinical Administrative Legislative Company Scientist Corporate Executive Venture Capitalist Practitioner Professional Society Expert Panel Member Program Manager Regional Administrator Hospital Executive Marketable Product Effectiveness Ethics Patient Preference Program Evaluation Practice Variation Cost-Effectiveness Problem Definition Affirmation of Assumed Causes Policy Ideas Range of Research Needs Politician Bureaucrat Interest Groups Jonathan Lomas. Improving Research Dissemination and Uptake in the Health Sector: Beyond the Sound of One Hand Clapping. 1997.

9. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 9 AudienceDecision-MakerResearch Needs Industrial Clinical Administrative Legislative Company Scientist Corporate Executive Venture Capitalist Practitioner Professional Society Expert Panel Member Program Manager Regional Administrator Hospital Executive Marketable Product Effectiveness Ethics Patient Preference Program Evaluation Practice Variation Cost-Effectiveness Problem Definition Affirmation of Assumed Causes Policy Ideas Politician Bureaucrat Interest Groups Biomedical, Information- Technology Research

10. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 10 AudienceDecision-MakerResearch Needs Industrial Clinical Administrative Legislative Company Scientist Corporate Executive Venture Capitalist Practitioner Professional Society Expert Panel Member Program Manager Regional Administrator Hospital Executive Marketable Product Effectiveness Ethics Patient Preference Program Evaluation Practice Variation Cost-Effectiveness Problem Definition Affirmation of Assumed Causes Policy Ideas Politician Bureaucrat Interest Groups Clinical Research

11. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 11 AudienceDecision-MakerResearch Needs Industrial Clinical Administrative Legislative Company Scientist Corporate Executive Venture Capitalist Practitioner Professional Society Expert Panel Member Program Manager Regional Administrator Hospital Executive Marketable Product Effectiveness Ethics Patient Preference Program Evaluation Practice Variation Cost-Effectiveness Problem Definition Affirmation of Assumed Causes Policy Ideas Politician Bureaucrat Interest Groups Health Services Research

12. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 12 AudienceDecision-MakerResearch Needs Industrial Clinical Administrative Legislative Company Scientist Corporate Executive Venture Capitalist Practitioner Professional Society Expert Panel Member Program Manager Regional Administrator Hospital Executive Marketable Product Effectiveness Ethics Patient Preference Program Evaluation Practice Variation Cost-Effectiveness Problem Definition Affirmation of Assumed Causes Policy Ideas Politician Bureaucrat Interest Groups Health Policy Analysis

13. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Is there a gap? Research Policy

14. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Is there a gap? ResearchPolicy

15. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Is there a gap? Research Policy Technocratic networks Ideological think tanks Internal think tanks UN Think tanks Public think tanks Political parties Lobbies NGOs corporations Universities Regulatory bodies Executive

16. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific & Political Elites Scientific Elite Pool

17. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific & Political Elites Scientific Elite Pool Political Elite Pool

18. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific & Political Elites Scientific Elite Pool Political Elite Pool Weak Integration: Toward Populism

19. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific & Political Elites Scientific Elite Pool Political Elite Pool Strong Integration: Toward Elitism

20. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Integration of Scientific & Political Elites Scientific Elite Pool Political Elite Pool Differentiated Civil Society Organizations

21. Dr. Shahram Yazdani What is a think tank? Knowledge-based, policy-oriented institutions Serve governments, intergovernmental organizations, and civil society Generate policy-oriented research, analysis, and advice on domestic and international issues Engage policymakers,,the media and the public on key policy issues Enable policymakers and the public to make informed decisions about public policy issues 21

22. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Recent Think Tank Trends 22

23. Dr. Shahram Yazdani A Brief History of American Think Tanks First generation: think tanks as policy research institutions  Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1910)  Institute for Government Research (1916, Brookings)  Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace (1919)  Council on Foreign Relations (1921)  American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research (1943) Second generation: the emergence of government contractors  RAND Corporation (1948)  Hudson Institute (1961)  Urban Institute (1968)

24. Dr. Shahram Yazdani A Brief History (continued) The third generation: the rise of advocacy think tanks  Center for Strategic and International Studies (1962)  Heritage Foundation (1973)  CATO Institute (1977) The fourth generation: legacy-based think tanks  Carter Center (1984)  Nixon Center for Peace and Freedom (1994)

25. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Global Dispersion of Think Tanks There are currently 6,976 Think Tanks worldwide

26. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Three Kinds of Think Tanks “University without students:”  Quality academic research; focus on long-term impact; research fellow like professors  Examples: Brookings, AEI, Carnegie Endowment Government contractors  Funded by government department / agencies; address specific concerns of policy-makers  Examples: RAND, Urban Institute Advocacy think tanks  Research plus aggressive marketing; actively participate in policy debate  Heritage, CATO

27. Dr. Shahram Yazdani University without Students: Brookings Institution “The Brookings Institution is an independent, nonpartisan organization devoted to research, analysis, education, and publication focused on public policy issues in the areas of economics, foreign policy, and governance.” 3 Programs: economy, government, foreign policy; 6 policy centers Rigorous academic research Close relation with federal government

28. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Government Contractor: RAND Corporation Mission: “RAND is a nonprofit institution that helps improve policy and decision-making through research and analysis.” More than 1,600 full- and part-time employees, (85% research staff hold advanced degrees, with >65% having Ph.D's or M.D.'s. ) Research areas: Child Policy, Civil and Criminal Justice, Regional Studies, Drug Policy, Education, Health, Infrastructure, International Policy, National Security, Population & Aging, Science & Technology, Terrorism

29. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Advocacy Think Tanks: Heritage Foundation Mission: “formulate and promote conservative public policies based on the principles of free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a strong national defense.” “The Foundation produces research and generates solutions consistent with its beliefs that are marketed to the Congress, the Executive Branch, the news media and others”

30. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 30 Types of Analysis Scientific  search for truth and build theory about policy actions and effects  may be too theoretical for most decision makers  examples: academic social scientists, National Academy of Sciences

31. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 31 Types of Analysis (cont’d) Professional  analyze alternatives to solve problems  goal is for practical value  research can be too narrow due to time or resource constraints  examples: Brookings Institution, American Enterprise Institute, General Accountability Office

32. Dr. Shahram Yazdani 32 Types of Analysis (cont’d) Political  advocate and support preferred policies  often ideological or partisan; may lack analytical depth  examples: Sierra Club, AFL-CIO, Heritage Foundation

33. Dr. Shahram Yazdani To achieve what? Discursive changes Procedural changes Content changes Attitudinal changes Behavioural changes

34. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Idea Producer or Broker? Heritage Foundation Expenses, 2002 Brookings Institution Expenses, 2002 Research (40%) Educational Programs (21%) Media & Government Relations (20%) Fundraising (16%) Management & General (3%) Economic Studies (37%) Foreign Policy Studies (17%) Governance Studies (15%) CPPE (11%) Publications (10%) External Affairs (6%) Communications (4%)

35. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Outlets of Think Tanks’ Works Books, journal articles Monographs, reports, occasional papers Short pieces of policy brief Op-ed pieces Other informal channels  Conferences, panel discussions  Policy training programs  Media appearance

36. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Brookings Top Think Tank (US) Fraser Institute (Canada and Mexico) Chatham House, (Western Europe) Carnegie Moscow Center (Eastern and Central Europe)

37. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Fundación Getulio Vargas, (Latin America) Carnegie Middle East Center, (Middle East) South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA), (Southern Africa) Japan Institute of International Affairs (JIIA) (Asia)

38. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Overseas Development Institute (Int’l Devleopment) Harvard School of Public Health Dept of Health Policy (Health Policy) Pew Center on Global Climate Change, (Enviornment) Council on Foreign Relations (Security and International Affairs)

39. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Brookings Institution (Domestic Economics) Peterson Institute for International Economics, (International Economics) Urban Institute (Social Policy) RAND (Science and Technology)

40. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Brookings Institution (Innovative Policy Proposal) European Council on Foreign Relations (Best New Think Tank) Brookings Institution (Best Policy Research Program) Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Best Use of the Internet)

41. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Amnesty International (Best Use of the Print and Electronic Media) Center for American Progress (Most impact on Policy)

42. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Top Think Tanks for 2009 Chatham House, UK (Top TT World-Non US) Brookings Top Think Tank (World)

43. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Funding Sources: Brookings (FY2002) Total Revenue: $40,678,000

44. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Funding Sources: RAND (FY2002) Total Income: $186,808,000

45. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Funding Sources: Heritage (FY2002) Total Income: $27,539,833

46. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Revolving Door between Government and Think Tanks: Examples from USA Three secretaries in the Clinton administration landed at Brookings Think tank alumnus in Bush administration  Rice (HI), Chao (HF), Haass (BI), Perle (AEI) President’s economic advisors:  Larry Lindsey (AEI), Glen Hubbard (AEI)  Martin Baily (BI, IIE), Gene Sperling (BI), Laura Tyson (IIE), Robert Lawrence (BI, IIE), Joseph Stiglitz (BI)  William Niskanen (Cato), { M. Boskin (HI), M. Feldstein (NBER) }  Charles Schultz (BI), Arthur Okun (BI) Others: Alan Blinder (BI), Alice Rivlin(BI)

47. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Political Elites vs.The Statecraft Interpretation Political elite = party leaders, their political advisers + top civil servants Statecraft: ‘the art of winning elections and achieving some necessary degree of governing competence in office’ (Bulpitt, 1986: 21)

48. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Statecraft Functions A Winning Electoral Strategy Party Management Political Argument Hegemony: ‘a winning rhetoric in a variety of locations winning because either the framework of the party’s arguments becomes generally acceptable, or because its solutions to a particularly important political problem seem more plausible than its opponents’ (Bulpitt, 1986: 22).

49. Dr. Shahram Yazdani The Need for Depoliticization of Policy Process Depoliticisation: ‘…the process of placing at one remove the political character of decision-making’ (Burnham, 2001: 127). E.g. Operational independence to the Bank of England (1997)

50. Dr. Shahram Yazdani How do TTs influence? Type of influencing Where? Through what channels?How? By what means? Evidence and advice - National and international policy discourses/debates - Formal and informal meetings - Research and analysis, ‘good practice’ - Evidence-based argument - Providing advisory support - Developing and piloting new policy approaches Public campaigns and advocacy - Public and political debates in developing countries - Public meetings, speeches, presentations - Television, newspapers, radio and other media - Public communications and campaigns - ‘Public education’ - Messaging - Advocacy Lobbying and negotiation approache s - Formal meetings - Semi-formal and informal channels - Membership and participation in boards and committees - Face-to-face meetings and discussions - Relationships and trust - Direct incentives and diplomacy

51. Dr. Shahram Yazdani Thank You ! Any Question ?