1. TRP Chapter 6.1 1 Chapter 6.1 Choosing appropriate technologies

2. TRP Chapter 6.1 2 Hierarchy of preferred waste management options Source: David C Wilson 1993, 1997, 2001

3. TRP Chapter 6.1 3 Waste avoidance and minimisation Top of the waste hierarchy Reduces pressure on treatment and disposal facilities Reduces costs Saves resources

4. TRP Chapter 6.1 4 Re-use and recycling options Re-use and recycling: divert wastes from disposal reduce resource consumption reduce costs reduce environmental impacts from raw material acquisition Re-use - no treatment except for any necessary cleaning Recycling - materials may first require cleaning or separation

5. TRP Chapter 6.1 5 Principles of treatment Volume reduction Reduce the volume of waste with hazardous components by concentration Destruction Convert hazardous to non-hazardous substances Containment Isolate hazardous materials

6. TRP Chapter 6.1 6 Treatment options 1 Physical Chemical Physical and chemical Biological All treatments are aimed at modifying physical and chemical properties of the hazardous component Most treatments leave residues for disposal

7. TRP Chapter 6.1 7 Treatment options 2 Thermal Stabilisation and solidification Combined treatment methods All treatments are aimed at modifying physical and chemical properties of the hazardous component Most treatments leave residues for disposal

8. TRP Chapter 6.1 8 Disposal options Landfill and land disposal may include: Co-disposal Disposal in engineered hazardous waste sites or cells within sites Other options: Soil biodegradation Underground injection Deep mines Unlikely to be suitable for developing economies

9. TRP Chapter 6.1 9 Technology selection At on-site level, to deal with a particular waste stream At national level, to decide what off-site facilities are needed to deal with residues from individual premises Always need to know quantities and types of waste There will always be a need for landfill

10. TRP Chapter 6.1 10 Technology criteria for on-site treatment of wastes Can it deal with amount and type of waste? Will it enable compliance with regulations? What are the likely costs? What are the implications for operation? Are there any workplace, environmental or social concerns? What residues will be generated that have to be removed off-site?

11. TRP Chapter 6.1 11 Selection criteria for delivering national strategy The nature and quantity of waste The desired characteristics of outputs from treatment The role of a centralised landfill for stabilised wastes from individual generators The technical adequacy of treatment alternatives Economic and financial considerations Workplace, environmental and social considerations

12. TRP Chapter 6.1 12 Selection criteria for particular waste stream Can it deal with amount and type of waste? Will it enable compliance with regulations? What are the likely costs and possible revenues? Are there any environmental or social concerns?

13. TRP Chapter 6.1 13 Physical treatment  Manual separation - removes selected wastes by visual inspection  Sieving and screening - removes coarse material  Sedimentation - settles solids to separate liquid  Decanting - removes water content  Centrifuging - removes water content  Filtration  Solvent extraction  Adsorption  Soil washing - extracts soluble contaminants  Sludge drying  Autoclaving - sterilises waste by heat & pressure  Microwave irradiation - sterilisation

14. TRP Chapter 6.1 14 Physical treatment - example of application Filtration - Belt filter Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

15. TRP Chapter 6.1 15 Chemical treatment  Chemical reduction and oxidation - uses oxidising and reducing agents to transform constituents  Neutralisation - adjusts pH to neutral  Precipitation - separates hazardous constituents from solution  Dechlorination - removes chlorine from organic materials  Hydrolysis - breaks down constituents by adding water  Electrolysis - breaks down chemical compounds with electrical charge

16. TRP Chapter 6.1 16 Chemical treatment - example of application Neutralisation Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

17. TRP Chapter 6.1 17 Physico-chemical treatment  Solvent extraction - uses immiscible solvent to dissolve organic material in aqueous solution  Flocculation & coagulation - aggregates fine constituents  Stripping / Desorption - separates volatile components from liquid by passing through gas stream  Membrane-separation - uses semi-permeable memebrane  Leaching - removes soluble components from solid material  Scrubbing - removes constituents from gas or liquid stream by contact with washing liquid/slurry or powder  UV Irradiation / Ozonolysis - breaks down hazardous constituents by ozone/energy  Ion exchange - exchange with dissolved ionic species through contact with resin

18. TRP Chapter 6.1 18 Physico-chemical treatment - example of application PrecipitationFlocculationSedimentation Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

19. TRP Chapter 6.1 19 Biological treatment Biodegradation of organic into simple inorganic species with suitable microbes  Activated sludge treatment - biodegrades organic species with bio-active sludge in aqueous phase  Rotating biological contactor - breaks down aqueous organic species in contact with bacterial rich filter  Aerated lagoons and stabilisation ponds - break down organic wastes in shallow pools with oxygen  Anaerobic digestion - degrades organic waste in absence of oxygen  Land application - biodegrades organic matter through action with soil microbes

20. TRP Chapter 6.1 20 Biological treatment - example of application Activated Sludge treatment Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

21. TRP Chapter 6.1 21 Stabilisation and Solidification Converts waste into insoluble rock-like materials  Stabilisation - treats waste to minimise migration  Solidification - uses cement-based process  Encapsulation - encloses waste within casing or layer of inert substance  Recommended for inorganic hazardous wastes  A pretreatment step prior to landfill disposal

22. TRP Chapter 6.1 22 Stabilisation and solidification - example of application Drums of solidified waste Source: David C Wilson

23. TRP Chapter 6.1 23 Thermal treatment Thermal treatment of waste:  Incineration  allows energy recovery, materials recycling  Pyrolysis  Gasification  allow recovery of useful materials

24. TRP Chapter 6.1 24 Co-combustion in cement kilns Existing lime or cement kilns can be adapted to burn hazardous wastes Suitable for interim and long term use Avoids need for new facility Saves on fuel costs in cement making

25. TRP Chapter 6.1 25 Thermal treatment - example of application Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley Rotary kiln incinerator

26. TRP Chapter 6.1 26 Simple options 1 Solar evaporation ponds can be used for sludge dewatering or drying Very small quantities of difficult wastes can be encapsulated in cement, prior to landfill Existing industrial boilers can be adapted to burn wastes

27. TRP Chapter 6.1 27 Simple options 2 Not suitable for long term or widespread use: Evaporation pits can be used for very small quantities of solvents, where recovery or incineration is not practicable Engineered open-pit incinerators can be used to burn small quantities of hazardous wastes in isolated areas Oily sludges can be stabilised by mixing with sand or similar material, and weathering

28. TRP Chapter 6.1 28 Outdated technologies? Long term storage Ocean dumping Ocean incineration by special vessels Deep well injection Disposal in salt mines Land deposit of toxic organic wastes Solvent evaporation Co-disposal of non-stabilised hazardous wastes Several technologies were used in Western countries in the past but have now been discontinued or severely limited. These include:

29. TRP Chapter 6.1 29 Treatment & disposal methods for certain waste types Effluents, washwatersx Acids, alkalis x Heavy metals x x Residues Toxic inorganicsx x Residues Reactive wastesx Non-toxic inorganicsx x Solvents, oilsxx Resins, paints, organic sludgexx Organic chemicalsxxx Petsicidesxx PCBs, chlorinated hydrocarbonsx Putrescible, biodegradable wastes xx LandfillRecoveryIncinTreatmentImmob/ation

30. TRP Chapter 6.1 30 Technology assessment How to evaluate overall aspects of technology choice? Environmental Technology Assessment (EnTA) can examine the broader implications of a technology option. Process is similar to LCA but applied to technologies rather than products Environmental Impact Assessment evaluates the location and societal implication of a technology or development project Risk Assessment examines the hazards and risk reduction measures from a technology or process

31. TRP Chapter 6.1 31 Key considerations Waste reduction and avoidance by generators should always be a priority Role of on-site vs off-site technologies Need to consider residues from treatment processes and their disposal Transitional technologies may be used until final high-quality installations are available

32. TRP Chapter 6.1 32 Key questions when choosing technologies Who can undertake technology assessment? Which wastes are not acceptable? Transport - how are the wastes received? How to monitor the wastes received? Who will design the plant? Train the operators? What features address specific national aspects? How simple/sophisticated is plant operation? How is plant performance monitored? What other environmental impacts are possible? What workplace hazards are likely? What is the permitting procedure? Is an EIA needed?

33. TRP Chapter 6.1 33 Chapter 6.1 Summary In order to choose appropriate technologies, need to: address options at top of hierarchy consider principles of treatment evaluate treatment and disposal options select technology - on-site or off-site - to suit waste type and circumstances consider simple options try to avoid outdated technologies undertake technology assessment