2. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 DCO10105 Object-Oriented Programming and Design  Lecture 8: Polymorphism & C++ pointer  Inheritance and polymorphism  Pointer, dynamic memory, and pointer’s effect on class construction  Dynamic binding and virtual function -- By Rossella Lau

3. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Inheritance A sub class has all the properties of its base class  Data members and function members, no matter if it is private, protected, or public  The type of the base class A sub class can play as its parent class when passing as a parameter; e.g., in scopePlayer.cpp, Donald boxD(dewey); deduct7(dewey);  A sub class has many types – poly – morph (mask)

4. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Polymorphism  Polymorphism – many types  Same classes can play as different types (of ancestors)  Same expressions can perform different operations

5. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Same class acts as its ancestors  Same family members can be stored in the same container  Donald donalds[SIZE]; …… donalds[i] = dewey;  Vector donalds(SIZE); …… donald[i] = dewey;  One function can be called with the same family members  deduct7(Donald &) in scopePlayer.cpp

6. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Same expression but different operations  When family members stored in the same container, e.g., donalds[i].print() invokes  Dewey::print() if donalds[i] stores dewey  Huey::print() if donalds[i] stores huey  Donald::print() if donads[i] stores donald

7. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 bindingPlayer1.cpp  A parent’s function can also be identified through the instance of the child class by using BaseClass:: e.g. dewey.Donald::withdraw(10);  How about : (static_cast (dewey)).withdraw (10);  It does not work! It does not have any effect even though dewey pretends to be a Donald !

8. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Static binding does not always work  The type cast of the above case is just a compiler binding, static binding, and dewey’s actual data type is still Dewey and it can’t really pretend to be a Donald during execution  In C++, to achieve actual execution type cast, dynamic binding, one should use pointer and define function to be overridden as virtual function

9. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Data and memory  All data required in a program must be in the memory  Memory is addressed from zero to, e.g., 512M-1  Data in a location is referenced by an address  Data declared in a program will be assigned some memory spaces and referenced by the beginning of the address …... 2000 2004 0 5000 Memory in vertical view

10. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Simple data referencing in memory x's address is, for example, 2000 with the value of 0, and y is at 2004. 0 …... 2000 2004 0 x y …… {int a, b; …… }

11. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Memory allocation for simple data  It depends on both the hardware and the compiler  Usually, for the C or C++ programs, the compiler/ system assigns a truck of memory for allocating:  Static space Data survival while the program is running Syntax: e.g., static int a; and global variables  Automatic space (or called a stack) Data are alive only when data’s corresponding scope is running Syntax: e.g., int a;

12. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer A pointer stores the value of an address  In data declaration, e.g., int *p;  p is a pointer;  the content in the address of p is integer type, i.e., address 2000 stores an integer  In program executable statement,  the identifier, p, refers to an address (i.e., 2000) or it will be assigned an address  the identifier with an * (dereferencing), *p, refers to the data/object in the address of p  &id means the address of id 0 2000 …... 2000 2004 0 x y p

13. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer definition & expression  To declare a pointer e.g,. int * ptr;  To assign the address of a datum to a pointer, e.g., int a, b; ptr = &a;  To refer to the datum pointed to by a pointer (dereferencing) e.g., *ptr = 2; // same as a = 2 b = *ptr; // same as b = a

14. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer - a conceptual sense 0 2000 …... 2000 2004 0 x y p 0 …... 2000 2004 0 x y p

15. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer Variables  The statement int *p; is equivalent to the statement int* p; which is equivalent to the statement int * p;  The character * can appear anywhere between the data type name and the variable name  int* p, q; Only p is the pointer variable, not q. Here q is an int variable (Malik’s slide: 14-5)

16. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer Variables  To avoid confusion, we prefer to attach the character * to the variable name int *p, q;  The following statement declares both p and q to be pointer variables of the type int int *p, *q; (Malik’s slide: 14-6)

17. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 The Address of Operator (&)  The ampersand, &,  is called the address of operator  is a unary operator that returns the address of its operand (Malik’s slide: 14-7) Note that & here is the “address of” operator, not the symbol for “reference”

18. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 The Dereferencing Operator (*)  C++ also uses * as a unary operator  When used as a unary operator, *,  commonly referred to as the dereferencing operator or indirection operator,  refers to the object to which its operand (that is, a pointer) points (Malik’s slide: 14-8)

19. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Dynamic Variables  Variables that are created during program execution are called dynamic variables  With the help of pointers, C++ creates dynamic variables  new and delete, to create and destroy dynamic variables, respectively  When a program requires a new variable, the operator new is used  When a program no longer needs a dynamic variable, the operator delete is used  In C++, new and delete are reserved words (Malik’s slide: 14-9)

20. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6  Malik Exercise: 14:3-4  What is the output of the following C++ code? Exercises int x; int y; int *p = &x; int *q = &y; *p = 35; *q = 98; *p = *q; cout << x << “ “ << y << endl; cout << *p << “ “ << *q << endl; int x; int y; int *p = &x; int *q = &y; x = 35; y = 46; p = q; *p = 78; cout << x << “ “ << y << endl; cout << *p << “ “ << *q << endl;

21. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Array and pointer  In C, an array id is also a pointer  For static array, it is a constant pointer  For dynamic array, it can be used as a normal pointer  The array id, array, refers to the starting address of the array; i.e., array refers to the address of array[0]  E.g., int *array; or int array[SIZE];  array is the starting address of the array  array is also the address of array[0]  *array is the same as array[0]  If it is a dynamic array (the first form), it allows for int *ptr; ptr = arrary; array = ptr;  However, if it is a static array (the second form), array is a constant pointer, it does not allow for array = ptr;

22. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Null pointer A pointer can have null value, e.g., ptr = 0;  This pointer with a value of binary zero is also called a null pointer  It represents that the pointer refers to nothing  Checking:  if (ptr) // to check if a pointer refers to something  if (!ptr) // to check if a pointer is null  if (ptr == NULL) // C style to check for a null pointer

23. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Parameter passed by pointer (for efficiency)  When an object is passed to a function, copying of the object is not efficient  Passed by a pointer, equivalent to passed by a reference, is more efficient: only the value of the pointer is copied Calling functionCalled function copying  E.g., functions in array.cpp of Lecture 4

24. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Constant pointers/reference  Objects passed by pointers may be modified since the object is pointed to by the called function  On many occasions, objects are only for reference purposes; e.g., parameters of many operators such as +, -, *, /, cout.  C++ provides a keyword const to specify that an object (including pointers) can be a constant and/or the object referenced can be a constant; i.e., the object referenced remains unchanged; e.g.,:  int const *cip; // pointer to an int const  int *const icp; // pointer const to an int  int const *const cicp; // pointer const to an int const

25. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 …… a_ptr = a_fun() …… int *a_fun() { int a; …… return &_a; // space of a // released // before a_fun // ends } Danger pointers  Dangling pointer: a pointer points to an object which is not available or overwritten by others  Invalid address reference; e.g., use of null pointers.

26. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6  The declaration of a pointer does not provide any memory space for its target  Dynamic space can be obtained by the operator new  Dewey *p = new Dewey; // get space for an instance  Dynamic space is in an area managed by the operating system and is permanent – it allows the object to be created and then used in different functions  C-style gets dynamic space by using malloc() Pointer and memory allocation //Misuse of null pointer int *p; *p = 1320; // illegal!!

27. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Memory allocation for dynamic array  The following will cause the system to fail when length is a variable, int array[length];  To obtain space for an array: int *array = new int[length];  Remember to avoid misuse of null pointers: int *array; cout << *array; // array does not refer // to any real block!

28. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Dynamic memory de-allocation  Unlike Java, C does not automatically resume dynamic spaces  If one continues to do allocation, the system will crash because of running out of memory – it is also called memory leak.  It is required to de-allocate the occupied space before the program is terminated delete dewey; delete[] array; //must use this form for array  C-style: delete()

29. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Notes to memory de-allocation  Local variables defined in each function will be automatically released just before a function is terminated  Instances declared as an ordinary variable, not a pointer, e.g., Donald donald; will also be released in the same way  Global variables are automatically released just before a program is terminated  However, dynamic space assigned by using new will not be released as in the above manner.

30. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer and class  A member function in OOP must be invoked with an instance object; e.g., dewey.print();  The instance object is the associated object of each member function defined in a class  In Java, the associated object is “ this ”, a reference  In C++, “ this ” is a pointer  To refer to the associated object, use *this  To identify a member, e.g., use this  a = a; in Quadratic.cpp

31. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Pointer as a data member  When there is a pointer data member, most likely, it will point to dynamic memory;  e.g., class IntArray stores a dynamic array, a pointer  Care should be taken during class construction since the following can be automatically generated by the compiler:  Default constructor & Destructor  Copy constructor & Assignment operator Care should be taken to be sure whether a shallow copy or a deep copy is needed (Malik’s slide: 14: 16, 21) Class IntArray, similar to classes in the STL, performs deep copy

32. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Shallow Copy vs Deep Copy  In a shallow copy, two or more pointers of the same type point to the same memory; that is, they point to the same data  In a deep copy, two or more pointers have their own data (Malik’s slide: 14-16)

33. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 The Assignment Operator (Malik’s slide: 14-16)

34. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Using pointer for dynamic binding  bindingPlayer2.cpp  (static_cast (dewey))->withdraw (10); takes effect!  Sub classes should be able to pretend to be the base class and then plays its own role again such as the call playPrint(); on line 32  But the execution shows that for donald->print() of playPrint(), it uses only the print() of the base class

35. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Dynamic binding  To simplify defining many functions for playPrint(), the print() of the base class can be defined as a virtual function in order to allow one expression to perform different operations  E.g., DonaldFamilyVirtual.h & bindingPlayer3.cpp Change void print() const; to virtual void print() const; The execution inside playPrint() can perform different print() according to the actual data type of the passed object!  Dynamic binding in C++ should be achieved by both pointers and virtual functions

36. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Summary  Polymorphism means an object can play different roles through static binding or dynamic binding  Dynamic binding in C++ must be achieved by pointers and virtual functions  A pointer stores an address and can apply de-referencing and object member identification  Pointer is a powerful but also a dangerous feature and thus in C++, reference is used more  When there is a pointer data member, care must be taken in defining default constructor, copy constructor, assignment operator, and destructor

37. Rossella Lau Lecture 8, DCO10105, Semester B,2005-6 Reference  Malik: 14 -- END --