1. AP Psychology Unit 9: Developmental Psychology © 2010 by Worth Publishers David G. Myers

2. Figure 9.1 Life is sexually transmitted (a) Sperm cells surround an ovum. (b) As one sperm penetrates the egg’s jellylike outer coating, a series of chemical events begins that will cause sperm and egg to fuse into a single cell. If all goes well, that cell will subdivide again and again to emerge 9 months later as a 100-trillion-cell human being. © 2010 by Worth Publishers (a)(b)

3. Figure 9.2 Prenatal development (a) The embryo grows and develops rapidly. At 40 days, the spine is visible and the arms and legs are beginning to grow. (b) By the end of the second month, when the fetal period begins, facial features, hands, and feet have formed. (c) As the fetus enters the fourth month, its 3 ounces could fit in the palm of your hand. © 2010 by Worth Publishers (a)(b)(c)

4. Figure 9.3 Quick—which is the cat? Researchers used cat-dog hybrid images such as these to test how infants categorize animals. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

5. Figure 9.4 Newborns’ preference for faces When shown these two stimuli with the same elements, Italian newborns spent nearly twice as many seconds looking at the facelike image (Johnson & Morton, 1991). Canadian newborns—average age 53 minutes in one study—display the same apparently inborn preference to look toward faces. Mondloch et al., 1999 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

6. Figure 9.5 Drawings of human cerebral cortex sections In humans, the brain is immature at birth. As the child matures, the neural networks grow increasingly more complex. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

7. Figure 9.6 Triumphant toddlers Sit, crawl, walk, run—the sequence of these motor development milestones is the same the world around, though babies reach them at varying ages. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

8. Figure 9.7 Infant at work Babies only 3 months old can learn that kicking moves a mobile, and they can retain that learning for a month. From Rovee-Collier, 1989, 1997 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

9. Figure 9.8 Scale errors Psychologists Judy DeLoache, David Uttal, and Karl Rosengren (2004) report that 18- to 30-month-old children may fail to take the size of an object into account when trying to perform impossible actions with it. At left, a 21-month-old attempts to slide down a miniature slide. At right, a 24-month-old opens the door to a miniature car and tries to step inside. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

10. Figure 9.9 An impossible object Look carefully at the “devil’s tuning fork.” Now look away—no, better first study it some more—and then look away and draw it.... Not so easy, is it? This is an impossible object; you have no schema for such an image. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

11. Figure 9.10 Pouring experience into mental molds © 2010 by Worth Publishers

12. Figure 9.11 Object permanence Infants younger than 6 months seldom understand that things continue to exist when they are out of sight. But for this infant, out of sight is definitely not out of mind. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

13. Figure 9.12 Infants can discriminate between possible and impossible objects After habituating to the stimulus on the left, 4-month-olds stared longer if shown the impossible version of the cube— where one of the back vertical bars crosses over a front horizontal bar. Shuwairi et al., 2007 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

14. Figure 9.13 Baby math Shown a numerically impossible outcome, 5-month-old infants stare longer. From Wynn, 1992 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

15. Figure 9.14 Piaget’s test of conservation This preoperational child does not yet understand the principle of conservation of substance. When the milk is poured into a tall, narrow glass, it suddenly seems like “more” than when it was in the shorter, wider glass. In another year or so, she will understand that the volume stays the same. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

16. Figure 9.15 Testing children’s theory of mind This simple problem illustrates how researchers explore children’s presumptions about others’ mental states. Inspired by Baron-Cohen et al., 1985 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

17. Figure 9.16 Transported into a world of emotion (a) A research team at Cambridge University’s Autism Research Centre introduced children with autism to emotions experienced and displayed by toy vehicles. (b) After four weeks of viewing animations, the children displayed a markedly increased ability to recognize emotions in human as well as the toy faces. © 2010 by Worth Publishers (a) Emotion-conveying faces grafted onto toy trains (b) Matching new scenes and faces (and data for two trials) “The neighbor’s dog has bitten people before. He is barking at Louise.” Point to the face that shows how Louise is feeling.

18. Figure 9.17 The Harlows’ mothers Psychologists Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow raised monkeys with two artificial mothers—one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, the other a cylinder with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with terry cloth. The Harlows’ discovery surprised many psychologists: The infants much preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing mother. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

19. Figure 9.18 Social deprivation and fear Monkeys raised with artificial mothers were terror- stricken when placed in strange situations without their surrogate mothers. (Today’s climate of greater respect for animal welfare prevents such primate studies.) © 2010 by Worth Publishers

20. Figure 9.19 Infants’ distress over separation from parents In an experiment, groups of infants were left by their mothers in an unfamiliar room. In both groups, the percentage who cried when the mother left peaked at about 13 months. Whether the infant had experienced day care made little difference. From Kagan, 1976 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

21. Figure 9.20 Much ado about a small difference Janet Hyde (2005) shows us two normal distributions that differ by the approximate magnitude (0.21 standard deviations) of the gender difference in self-esteem, averaged over all available samples. Moreover, though we can identify gender differences, the variation among individual women and among individual men greatly exceeds the difference between the average woman and man. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

22. Figure 9.21 Women and the professions Law, medicine, and psychology have been attracting more and more women. Data from professional associations reported by A. Cynkar, 2007 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

23. Figure 9.22 Experience affects brain development Mark Rosenzweig and David Krech raised rats either alone in an environment without playthings, or with other rats in an environment enriched with playthings changed daily. In 14 of 16 repetitions of this basic experiment, rats in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex (relative to the rest of the brain’s tissue) than did those in the impoverished environment. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

24. Figure 9.23 A trained brain A well-learned finger-tapping task activates more motor cortex neurons (orange area, right) than were active in the same brain before training (left). From Karni et al., 1998 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

25. Figure 9.24 Height differences Throughout childhood, boys and girls are similar in height. At puberty, girls surge ahead briefly, but then boys overtake them at about age 14. (Data from Tanner, 1978.) Studies suggest that sexual development and growth spurts are beginning somewhat earlier than was the case a half-century ago. Herman-Giddens et al., 2001 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

26. Figure 9.25 Body changes at puberty At about age 11 in girls and age 13 in boys, a surge of hormones triggers a variety of physical changes. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

27. Figure 9.26 The changing parent-child relationship Interviews from a large, national study of Canadian families reveal that the typically close, warm relationships between parents and preschoolers loosen as children become older. Data from Statistics Canada, 1999 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

28. Figure 9.27 The transition to adulthood is being stretched from both ends In the 1890s, the average interval between a woman’s first menstrual period and marriage, which typically marked a transition to adulthood, was about 7 years; in industrialized countries today it is about 12 years (Guttmacher, 1994, 2000). Although many adults are unmarried, later marriage combines with prolonged education and earlier menarche to help stretch out the transition to adulthood. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

29. Figure 9.28 Gradually accelerating decline An analysis of aging and batting averages of all twentieth-century major league baseball players revealed a gradual but accelerating decline in players’ later years (Schall & Smith, 2000). The career performance record of the great Willie Mays is illustrative. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

30. Figure 9.29 Postponing a date with the grim reaper? The total number of daily U.S. deaths from 1987 to 2002 increased on the days following Christmas. To researchers Mitsuru Shimizu and Brett Pelham (2008), this adds to the growing evidence of a death-deferral phenomenon. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

31. Figure 9.30 The aging senses Sight, smell, and hearing all are less acute among those over age 70. From Doty et al., 1984 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

32. Figure 9.31 Age and driver fatalities Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among those 75 and older, and their greater fragility increases their risk of death when accidents happen (NHTSA, 2000). Would you favor driver exams based on performance, not age, to screen out those whose slow reactions or sensory impairments indicate accident risk? © 2010 by Worth Publishers

33. Figure 9.32 Incidence of dementia (mental disintegration) by age Risk of dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease or a series of strokes doubles about every 5 years in later life. From Jorm et al., 1987, based on 22 studies in industrial nations © 2010 by Worth Publishers

34. Figure 9.33 Predicting Alzheimer’s disease During a memory test, MRI scans of the brains of people at risk for Alzheimer’s (left) revealed more intense activity (yellow, followed by orange and red) when compared with normal brains (right). As brain scans and genetic tests make it possible to identify those likely to suffer Alzheimer’s, would you want to be tested? At what age? © 2010 by Worth Publishers

35. Figure 9.34 Tests of recall Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is easier for younger adults than for older ones. Data from Crook & West, 1990 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

36. Figure 9.35 Recall and recognition in adulthood In this experiment, the ability to recall new information declined during early and middle adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not. From Schonfield & Robertson, 1966 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

37. Figure 9.36 Cross-sectional versus longitudinal testing of intelligence at various ages In this test of one type of verbal intelligence (inductive reasoning), the cross-sectional method produced declining scores with age. The longitudinal method (in which the same people were retested over a period of years) produced a slight rise in scores well into adulthood. Adapted from Schaie, 1994 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

38. Figure 9.37 Word power grows with age In four studies summarized by Timothy Salthouse (2004), older crossword puzzle players excelled when given 15 minutes with a New York Times puzzle. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

39. Figure 9.38 Early forties midlife crises? Among 10,000 people responding to a national health survey, there was no early forties increase in emotional instability (“neuroticism”) scores. From McCrae & Costa, 1990 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

40. Figure 9.39 Age and life satisfaction With the tasks of early adulthood behind them, many older adults have more time to pursue personal interests. No wonder their satisfaction with life remains high, and may even rise if they are healthy and active. As this graph, based on surveys of 170,000 people in 16 countries shows, age differences in life satisfaction are small. Data from Inglehart, 1990 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

41. Figure 9.40 Biopsychosocial influences on successful aging Numerous biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors affect the way we age. With the right genes, we have a good chance of aging successfully if we maintain a positive outlook and stay mentally and physically active, as well as connected to family and friends in the community. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

42. Figure 9.41 Life satisfaction before, during the year of, and after a spouse’s death Richard Lucas and his collaborators (2003) examined longitudinal annual surveys of more than 30,000 Germans. The researchers identified 513 married people who experienced the death of a spouse and did not remarry. They found that life satisfaction began to dip during the prewidowhood year, dropped significantly during the year of the spouse’s death, and then eventually rebounded to nearly the earlier level. Richard Lucas © 2010 by Worth Publishers

43. Figure 9.42 Comparing the stage theories With thanks to Dr. Sandra Gibbs, Muskegon Community College, for inspiring this illustration. © 2010 by Worth Publishers