1. The psychological and educational effects of parental migration on the left-behind boys and girls in China Junxia Zeng Renmin University of China

2. China’s rural-to-urban migration: The largest migration wave in human history China’s rapid economic growth: nearly 10 percent increase per year in these 30 years (NBS,2011). Rural-to-urban people contribute a lot to this economic growth. 221 million migrates, with more young female migrates( China’s Census, 2010). 61 million left-behind children under 18 years old (China’s Census,2010). Data source: China Family Panel Studies,2010 Data source: China Census, 2010

3. Parental attitudes Labor supply decision Changing household- decision making authority Less parental care and supervision Higher income Girls benefit more? Boys suffer more? Preference of boys still exist? Mother is more gender fair? Different Parental Migration And The Different Gender Children Development

4. The effects of parental migration in children’s psychological outcomes Most studies are from psychology literature suggested that the lack of close relationships with parents may lead children to suffer more form psychological and behavioral problems(Zhengkui et al.,2009;Fan et al. 2009). Fewer studies have measured psychosocial factors using professional questionnaires(Meng Wen,Danhua Lin, 2012). Most studies just ignore parents’ migrate status, father-only, mother-only or both? (Leng Lee, Albert Park,2010). Little is known about the effects of different gender parent’s migration on the different gender children’s mental health.

5. The effects of parental migration in children’s educational outcomes The records of the effects of parental migration on children’s educational outcomes are mixed, or even though some are contradictory. Some researchers found positive effects Some found negative effects Some found no effects Lack of gender perspective Parental Migration Both Parents Just Father Just Mother Boys Girls

6. Goal, Data and Method

7. Descriptive results Table 1. Mental Health and Math Test Scores by Household Migration Type in 2012 SampleAllNo out Father out only Mother out only Both out Mental Health Test Standard Score All students-0.03-0.06-0.020.050.08 Boys-0.09-0.13-0.08-0.010.01 Girls0.040.000.040.110.14 Math Test Standard Score All students0.04 0.09-0.1-0.04 Boys0.040.050.08-0.08-0.02 Girls0.030.040.09-0.13-0.06 # of Students16,1128,3245,0827811,925 % of Students1005231512 Data Source: Author's Survey

8. Regression results on Psychological outcome Table 2. The Effects of Parental Migration on the Mental Health of Children Migration household type (Ref.= no out parents) Full SampleBoysGirls OLSDDDDMOLSDDDDMOLSDDDDM Father out only 0.04**0.040.030.05*0.050.07*0.030.040.03 Mother out only 0.09**0.040.030.09*0.15**0.17**0.08-0.08-0.12 Both out0.12***0.09**0.080.12***0.13**0.11**0.12***0.050.01 N16056 82237833 Adjusted R20.04 Data Source: Author's Survey

9. Regression results on Educational outcome Table 3. The Effects of Parental Migration on the Math Test Score of Children Migration household type (Ref.= no out parents) Full SampleBoysGirls OLSDDDDMOLSDDDDMOLSDDDDM Father out only 0.07***0.040.08***0.05**0.040.08*0.08***0.040.06 Mother out only -0.070.01-0.01-0.090.020.11-0.05-0.01-0.02 Both out-0.01-0.030.010.000.040.08-0.02-0.11 N16056 82237833 Adjusted R20.1113 0.111 0.1184 Data Source: Author's Survey

10. Conclusion Parental migration, especially mother’s, has a significantly negative effect of boys’ mental health. The reasons may be: 1. Boys are more “acting out” and mothers play a key role to discipline them. 2. Mothers usually “spoil” them before they migrated. Parental migration, regardless of any type, has no significantly effect on boys’ or girls’ math test score. Parental migration duration studied in this paper is less than 8 months, so it’s just a short-term migration.

11. Why do parents leave their children behind when migrating? Migrant?Left behind? Private schools or public schools with low quality Public schools Higher cost Housing Food schooling Lower cost Lack of social network Social network Grandparents other relatives Longer work time of mother

12. Thank you!