1. Figure 3.16 Different Types of Synaptic Connections
Types of synapses:
Axo-dendritic—axon terminal synapses on a dendrite
Axo-somatic—axon terminal synapses on the cell body (soma)
Axo-axonic—between two axons
Dendro-dendritic—between two dendrites
Retrograde—uses gas (such as carbon monoxide or nitric oxide) to signal presynaptic cell to release transmitter
Retrograde Signaling
A role for nitric oxide-driven retrograde signaling in the consolidation of a fear memory. Kathie A. Overeem (2010) Front. Behav. Neurosci.,

2. Anatomical Types of Synapses
Figure 11.17

3. Table 4.1 Transmitters
Neurochemistry focuses on the basic chemical composition and processes of the nervous system.
Neuropharmacology is the study of compounds that selectively affect the nervous system.
Exogenous substances are molecules from outside our own bodies, used throughout human history to affect our physiology and behavior.
Endogenous—occurs naturally within the body:
Endogenous ligands—substances that the brain produces
Exogenous—introduced from outside the body
Criteria for neurotransmitters—chemicals released onto target cells:
Substance exists in presynaptic axon terminals
Is synthesized in presynaptic cells
Is released when action potentials reach axon terminals
Receptors for the substance exist on postsynaptic membrane.
When applied, substance produces changes in postsynaptic cells.
Blocking substance release prevents changes in postsynaptic cell.
Types of neurotransmitters:
Amine neurotransmitters—acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin
Amino acid neurotransmitters—GABA, glutamate
Peptide neurotransmitters (or neurotransmitters)
Gas neurotransmitters—nitric oxide, carbon dioxide

4. Fig 3.12 Synapse The sequence of transmission:
Action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminal.
Voltage-gated calcium channels open and calcium ions (Ca2+) enter.
Synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane and release transmitter into the cleft.
Transmitters cross the cleft and bind to postsynaptic receptors and cause an EPSP or IPSP.
EPSPs or IPSPs spread toward the postsynaptic axon hillock.
Transmitter is inactivated (by enzymatic degradation) or removed (by transporters for reuptake and recycling)—action is brief.
Transmitter may activate presynaptic autoreceptors, decreasing release.
An action potential causes Ca2+ channels to open in the axon terminal and allow Ca2+ into the cell.
Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter into the cleft, a process known as exocytosis.
Transmitter action is brief and can occur in two ways:
1. Degradation is the rapid breakdown and inactivation of transmitter by an enzyme.
Example: acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down ACh and recycles it
2. Reuptake—transmitter is taken up into the presynaptic cell
Transporters are special presynaptic receptors involved in reuptake.
Some neurotransmitter molecules do not cross the cleft and bind to autoreceptors that inform the presynaptic cell about the net concentration of neurotransmitter in the cleft.

5. Co-Release of Neurotransmitters
Dale's Principle
a rule attributed to the English neuroscientist Henry Hallett Dale in the 1930’s
a neuron performs the same chemical action at all of its synaptic connections to other cells
overturned by many examples of co-release
Co-release of neurotransmitters
May be true for most neurons
For example: Acetylcholine and glutamate
Stored in separate vesicles
Amount of release of each can vary independently

6. Co-Release of Neurotransmitters
From Neuroscience: Promiscuous vesicles
John T. Williams Nature 490, 178–179 (11 October 2012) doi: /490178a

7. Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of Events
Transmitter action is brief because of:
1. Degradation is the rapid breakdown and inactivation of transmitter by an enzyme.
Example: acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down ACh and recycles it
2. Reuptake—transmitter is taken up into the presynaptic cell
Transporters are special presynaptic receptors involved in reuptake.
Some neurotransmitter molecules do not cross the cleft and bind to autoreceptors that inform the presynaptic cell about the net concentration of neurotransmitter in the cleft.

8. Cholinergic Synapse

9. Serotonin and Norepinephrine
Pharmacology Corner

10. Reuptake of Dopamine

11. Fig 3.15 Ionotropic - Metabotropic
Neurotransmitters affect targets by acting on receptors—protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
Ionotropic receptors are fast—open an ion channel when the transmitter molecule binds.
Metabotropic receptors are slow—when activated they alter chemical reactions in the cell, such as a G protein system, to open an ion channel.
Receptor subtypes—the same neurotransmitter may bind to a variety of subtypes, which trigger different responses
Receptors control ion channels in two ways:
Ionotropic receptors open when bound by a transmitter (also called a ligand-gated ion channel).
Metabotropic receptors recognize the transmitter but instead activate G proteins.
G proteins, sometimes open channels or may activate another chemical to affect ion channels.
The chemical is known as the second messenger—it amplifies the effects of the G protein and may lead to changes in membrane potential (The first messenger is the neurotransmitter).

12. Ionotropic – Metabotropic

13. Fig 3.13 Nicotinic Acetylcholine
Ligands fit receptors exactly and activate or block them:
Endogenous ligands—neurotransmitters and hormones
Exogenous ligands—drugs and toxins from outside the body
A synapse that uses acetylcholine (ACh) has ligand-binding sites for ACh in the receptor molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
ACh can be excitatory, and open channels for Na+ and K+, or inhibitory, and open channels for Cl−.
Some chemicals can fit on cholinergic receptors and block the action of ACh:
Curare (plant-derived) and bungarotoxin (from venom of snakes in the cobra family) block ACh receptors—are antagonists
However, muscarine and nicotine mimic ACh and are agonists of the receptor.
Most muscarinic ACh receptors are found in the brain and are also found on organs innervated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system.
These receptors played a role in the discovery of neurotransmitters in a famous experiment conducted by Otto Loewi (which helped him win the Nobel Prize in 1936).

14. Fig 4.1 Versatility of Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
Muscarinic
Receptor type
Nicotinic
Receptor type
Neurotransmitters affect targets by acting on receptors—protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
Ionotropic receptors are fast—open an ion channel when the transmitter molecule binds.
Metabotropic receptors are slow—when activated they alter chemical reactions in the cell, such as a G protein system, to open an ion channel.
Receptor subtypes—the same neurotransmitter may bind to a variety of subtypes, which trigger different responses

15. Norepinephrine subtype beta
For example Norepinephrine subtype beta which is metabotropic has a specific effect on the postsynaptic neuron because of the change in chemistry, i.e. “second messenger system”.

16. Pharmacology of Marijuana
Marijuana or cannabis, refers to preparations from the Cannabis plant
Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the major psychoactive chemical
Many other cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV)
Cannabinoid receptors are G protein-coupled with two subtypes
CB1- expressed mainly in the central nervous system
CB2 - expressed in the immune system
activated by either endogenous ligands the endocannabinoids or exogenous plant cannabinoids such as THC

17. Fig 4.15 Cannabinoid Receptors

18. Medical Marijuana Reduces nausea and vomiting from chemotherapy
Stimulation of hunger in AIDS patients
Lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating glaucoma)
General analgesic effects (pain relief)
Anxiety
low doses tend to induce anxiolytic-like effects, i.e. reduce anxiety
high doses often cause the opposite effect, can increase anxiety
Synthetic cannabinoids are available as prescription drugs
Dronabinol (Marinol) synthetic THC, used to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy
Nabilone (Cesamet) used as an antiemetic and as an adjunct analgesic

19. The endocannabinoid system plays a homeostatic role
Medical Marijuana
The endocannabinoid system plays a homeostatic role
activated after transient or chronic
stress
neuronal damage, and neuroinflammation
experiences that strengthen synaptic
motivational and affective processes
regulating local levels of other neurochemical signals
new therapeutic drugs
that can selectively manipulate the levels of endocannabinoids at their targets

20. Negative Effects of Marijuana
Short-term: many different effects because cannabinoid CB1 receptors are located throughout the CNS
problems with memory and learning
distorted perception
trouble with thinking and problem solving
loss of motor coordination
increased heart rate
Increased anxiety ???
Long-term:
Increased cancer risk – from smoking
Respiratory problems – also obviously from smoking
Suppressed immune system (usually a small amount) from CB2 receptors activation
These are all controversial claims with some studies finding no increased problems with any of these health problems.

21. Addiction to Marijuana
Cannabis withdrawal syndrome
similar magnitude to tobacco
characterized by negative mood (irritability, anxiety, misery), muscle pain, chills, and decreased food intake
usually goes away in a week even in heavy users
Activation of the Reward Circuit
Nonhuman animals (rats) do not readily work for THC which indicates that the reward circuits are not getting much activation
Usually done in an operant chamber with rats bar pressing for THC
Special circumstances such as prior drug experience and food deprivation can increased amount of bar pressing for THC
Psychological Dependence
Reports of psychological craving but mild for most individuals
However much worse in some individuals
Probably related to predisposition for mental illness (see next slide)

22. Marijuana and Mental Illness
Reefer Madness
Increased risk of psychotic symptoms
a greater risk in people who used cannabis most frequently (daily use)
stronger in those with any predisposition for psychosis
Although individuals may start using cannabis because of predisposition for mental illness recent studies show a cause and effect relationship
Le Bec PY (2009) Encephale. 35(4):
Ben Amar M (2007) J Psychoactive Drugs. 39(2):

23. Pharmacology of Canabinoids
Fasano et al.:Trends in Comparative Endocrinology and Neurobiology: Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1163: 112–124 (2009).

24. Anabolic and catabolic pathways of endocannabinoids
FIGURE 4 | Anabolic and catabolic pathways of endocannabinoids and their most likely subcellular localization.
The endocannabinoid system and its therapeutic exploitation Vincenzo Di Marzo, Maurizio Bifulco & Luciano De Petrocellis Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3, (September 2004) doi: /nrd1495