1. Financing Education in Post-Communist Countries Jan Herczyński Baku, April 21, 2014

2. Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance2 Structure of the presentation Sources of funds for education Models of education decentralization Motivation for education decentralization Education finance in different models Interlude on Ukraine: Pavlo Hobzey Fragmentation of education finance Education subsectors

3. Sources of funds for education Education is an expensive social function, employing large staff and consuming between 3% (Romania) and over 6% (Ukraine) of GDP Education is predominantly delivered by public institutions The sources of funds and a distribution procedure need to be defined by law Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance3

4. Sources of funds for education 2 In developed countries between 73% (Germany) and 99% (Denmark) of all funds for education come from public sources Non public funds for education are concentrated in tertiary and post secondary education Thus primary and secondary education are mainly funded from public funds Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance4

5. Sources of funds for education 3 Primary and secondary education: –low private returns to education (high opportunity costs, lack of immediate labor market relevance) –high social returns to education (social and political cohesion, active citizens, literate workforce and soldiers) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance5

6. Sources of funds for education 4 Tertiary and post-secondary education: –high private returns (education as „filtering system”, significance of degrees, high personal position in life) –relatively low social returns (social and political cohesion achieved already by secondary education) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance6

7. Sources of funds for education 5 Main sources of public funds for education: National budget: based on nationally collected taxes (PIT, CIT, VAT), Local budgets: based on local taxes (local fees, property tax, etc.) Local budgets: based on transfers from the national budgets (grants or shared taxes) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance7

8. Sources of funds for education 6 Types of transfers: General or sector specific Categorical or unconditional Directly to the payment agent or passing through intermediary levels Needs based or taking into account local financial capacities Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance8

9. Models of education decentralization With very few exceptions post communist countries make an effort to decentralize their education systems Two visions of education decentralization: Decentralization to local governments Decentralization to schools Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance9

10. Models of education decentralization 2 Decentralization to local governments: School as a part of local education system, serving the local community, Municipalities express local preferences, and act as rational agents of network consolidation, Focus on access and equity, Cooperation of schools. Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance10

11. Models of education decentralization 3 Decentralization to schools: Strong, autonomous schools managed by a professional school director, Budgetary, programmatic, and institutional autonomy, Serves interests of parents, teachers, students. Competition between schools. Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance11

12. Models of education decentralization 4 Decentralization to local governments is the model by far most often adopted in post communist countries: Poland, Lithuania, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovakia, It also corresponds better to historical forms of school governance. Georgia, Armenia decentralized to schools. Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance12

13. Models of education decentralization 5 Two visions of education decentralization complement each other in many ways, They are however incompatible in two areas: –Finances (setting school budgets), –Network management (school closures). In those two areas decentralization to schools and to local governments are very different. Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance13

14. Why decentralize education Poland 1989 : „Solidarity” creates a government without institutional political power base, presiding over a large, inherited, hostile apparatus Democratic strong local governments take the functions and money away from the apparatus Education included in decentralization in part against the wishes of Education Ministry Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance14

15. Why decentralize education 2 Macedonia 2003: Following a brief armed conflict in 2000, Ohrid agreements signed in 2001 to defuse enthic tension through far reaching decentralization Education one of key functions included in decentralization process Phased careful transfer of education functions Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance15

16. Why decentralize education 3 Georgia 2006: Following „Rose revolution”, new governement begins radical reforms Fight against corruption targets among others very corrupt system of rayons, from which most functions are taken away, Schools are made independent of rayons and financed directly through vouchers Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance16

17. Why decentralize education 4 We note that the decentralization model chosen reflects the political situation and priorities This is especially transparent in countries which have not actually decentralized education despite many years of reforms Romania remains highly centralized although it has enacted many decentralization laws Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance17

18. Financing decentralized education Education finance is part of public finance and follows the rules and procedures of pubic finance Education finance in any country must adapt to governance of education (to the model of education decentralization) We review education finance in two models discussed previously Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance18

19. Financing decentralized education 2 Under decentralization to schools : School budgets should be defined by a per student formula, The national or regional formula should take into account many factors to define adequate school budgets School vouchers are a brutally simple formula Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance19

20. Financing decentralized education 3 Under decentralization to local governments: Per student education transfers from the central budget are defined by a formula, The formula may be simpler due to averaging Municipalities set budgets of individual schools They may also add funds from other sources to finance education better Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance20

21. Financing decentralized education 4 Under decentralization to schools: School closures are unplanned results of competition for students, Lack of a natural local agent responsible for ensuring free access to education In practice, that responsibility is taken over by the Ministry (Georgia) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance21

22. Financing decentralized education 5 Under decentralization to local governments: Local governments can plan future evolution of school networks, They may introduce gradual agreed closures of schools, There is time and place for discussion of teacher employment Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance22

23. Financing decentralized education 6 A good example of intermediate model is provided by Lithuania Lithuanian municipalities have significant managerial powers over their schools Education grant is calculated on a per student basis for each school („student basket”) and the sum is sent to the municipality Municipality may reallocate up to 5% of grant Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance23

24. Fragmentation A common situation in post communist countries is fragmentation of education finance Fragmentations arises when some parts of the school budgets come from different sources Fragmentation is harmful to schools and leads to inefficiencies Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance24

25. Fragmentation 2 Romania: school maintenance from local budgets, salaries through transfers from the central budget Lithuania: education environment from local budgets, education process through student basket from central budget Sometimes fragmentation is temporary (Macedonia) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance25

26. Fragmentation 3 In post Soviet republics, a growing trend of using parental contributions collected by so called charitable funds (boards of trustees) In some cases, those contributions amount to over 50% of school budgets, but information is scarce and unreliable This creates a dangerous form of education finance fragmentation and risk of corruption Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance26

27. Education subsectors Preschools are universally decentralized to local govenments, sometimes to more than one level, Most often there are no special grant for preschools because they are not considered „education function” Often financed from own revenues of local governments Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance27

28. Education subsectors 2 Primary and secondary schools may be decentralized to different tiers of local gvernment and at different times (Poland), Even if the tier is the same, the allocation formula may be different (Macedonia) Even if the formula is the same, position of schools may depend on fiscal capacity of local government (Poland) Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance28

29. Education subsectors 3 Some countries have special treatment of vocational schools (Ukraine, Lithuania) Education of special needs students requires special regulations and special financial mechanisms under decentralized system The same applies to schools for minorities and for excellent students Jan HerczyńskiEducation finance29