1. The Karakoram Highway Alice Hudson Ian Goode Hamish Dunn

2. Background Connecting Pakistan to China Through Karakoram mountains Construction started in 1959 and was completed in 1986 (Jones,D. et al. 1983)

3. Geology (1) Solid colours – sedimentary Coloured Symbols – igneous rocks Black symbols – metamorphic rocks Thrust fault Tectonic movement (CGMW, 2009)

4. Geology (2) Greenstone Complex (Metamorphic rocks): greenschists (schists: white mica (muscovite) and black mica (biotite)) with abundant hornblende (silicates of calcium and sodium and magnesium and iron), quartzite and marble (calcite or dolomite) Granodiorite (Batholith): high quartz and biotite content. It is a result of fractional melting of a mafic (magnesium/iron rich rock) parent rock above a subduction zone Dolomite (Sedimentary rock): rock composed of calcium magnesium carbonate (Jones,D. et al. 1983)

5. Rock Face/Slope Stability 1 in every 6km has an average angle greater than 80° Steep, blast-disturbed rock faces and overhangs Daylighting in middle section of southern valleyside (Jones,D. et al. 1983)

6. Glaciers, Meltwater and River Surges Batura glacier one of largest in the world Fluctuating snout position and varying meltwater discharges Regular flooding and debris flows 1976 Sheeshkat flow (Photographersdirect.com)

7. Meltwater/River Surges February 2010 landslide Created a dam and a 21km lake (19km of KKH affected) KKH still submerged today Currently being redesigned (Google, 2011)

8. Engineering Solutions Adopted Route: contour following topography, valley floor Steep slopes, cut by blasting Water crossings/drainage Emphasis on maintenance over engineering solution (www.allurdubooks.blogspot.com)

9. Analyses of Adopted Solution Route & Profile Man-power intensive – time consuming Disturbed rocks and overhangs Trial and Error Cheap to do Bridges Settlement, instability Water crossing/drainage Insufficient capacity Easily blocked

10. Alternative Solutions Rock falls Mass support: rock traps, rock shelters, catch nets, retaining walls, slope re-grading Ground improvements: pattern bolting, grouting, geotextiles, weathering protection Drainage Gullies to catch sediment, more/higher volume culverts Upstream guidewalls, check dams (Global Environment Facility, 2009) http://userweb.port.ac.uk/~gilesd/images/A55 /P1010013.JPG (Portsmouth University, 2010)

11. The Karakoram Highway Alice Hudson Ian Goode Hamish Dunn