1. Food Contamination and Safety Concepts Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) –E.g. PCBs Heavy Metals –E.g. Mercury

2. Food Contamination and Safety Northern plants and animals are exposed to contaminants that accumulate in the North Pollutants move from soil and water into plants, and from there into animals The carnivore diet of humans in the Arctic involves the consumption of species high up in the food chain  This results in a higher chance of poisoning Feeding on caribou vs. marine mammals exposes humans to different levels of contaminants

3. Concepts Bioaccumulation The process by which a contaminant accumulates in the tissues of an individual organism E.g. certain chemicals in food eaten by a fish tend to accumulate in its liver and other tissues – the chemicals are taken in faster than the individual can get rid of them –PCBs are stored in fat –Cadmium is stored in the kidneys –Mercury is stored in the liver

4. Bioaccumulation

5. Concepts Biomagnification Increase in concentration of certain stable chemicals (for example, heavy metals or fat-soluble pesticides) in successively higher trophic levels of a food chain or web. E.g. metals such as mercury, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs, pesticides, dioxins Note: Not all contaminants biomagnify

6. Biomagnification

7. An extra link, on top of an already long food chain

8. Contamination: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Also called organochlorines An organic compound containing chlorine E.g. polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); common pesticides, such as DDT or Dioxin

9. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Highly toxic chemicals Estimated that 400 million tons are produced annually worldwide The “dirty dozen”  aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, dioxins, furans, endrin, HCB, heptachlor, mirex, PCBs, toxaphene Stored in fat and are persistent

10. Organochlorines

11. Example: Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) No longer produced in North America, but are still produced in some developing countries Were commonly used as lubricants in hydraulic fluid, transmission oil, and in electrical transformers Considered a POP  they stay in the environment for a long time and travel long distances

12. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) PCBs biomagnify At low level in food  can affect the reproductive system and thyroid, may damage the immune and nervous system Prenatal infants exposed to PCBs tend to have a higher incidence of upper respiratory-tract infections Suspected to cause liver, skin, and intestinal cancers

13. Levels of POPs in blood plasma

14. Average intake of POPs/day

15. Contamination: Heavy Metals Minerals that are naturally present in rocks and soils in all parts of the world, including the bed rock and unconsolidated material of the Canadian Arctic E.g. mercury, cadmium, lead Cadmium and mercury are released as a by- product of mining and smelting  primary long- range transport is through the atmosphere Significant quantities of mercury are also released as a result of the erosive and chemical actions that take place in reservoirs built to store water for large hydro-electric projects Metal levels are highest in people who eat large amounts of organ meat

16. Example: Mercury Mercury is a natural element that occurs in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in the Arctic Atmospherically deposited mercury is emitted from sources such as coal-fired electric utilities and waste incinerators in the south Global levels of atmospheric mercury are increasing each year

17. Mercury Major source of mercury is through meat, in the form of methyl mercury Highest in people who eat a lot of marine food Methyl mercury is easily taken up through the intestinal wall Major health concern is damage to the brain and nervous system, may also affect the immune system Methyl mercury easily passes through the placenta and can affect the fetus  may cause neurological damage

18. Methyl Mercury

19. Mercury in Maternal Blood RegionMicro-grams mercury/liter whole blood West. NWT1.7 N-central NWT3.5 Nunavik (N. Québec)13.7 NW Greenland19.8 N Sweden1.6 N Norway2.3 Iceland2.9 Nikel, Russia2.3

20. Time trend of mercury concentration in blood

21. Case Study: James Bay Project The construction of a series of hydroelectric power stations on the La Grande River in northwestern Québec One of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world Installed generating capacity of 16,000 megawatts  3x more power than the power station at Niagara Falls!

24. James Bay Project 1971: plans unveiled for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay Environmental assessments were not required under Québec law at the time Strong opposition to the project by the Crees of James Bay, the Inuit to the north, and several environmental groups –They believed the government was violating treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands –The Cree and Inuit were not informed of the project until after the construction of access roads had begun

25. James Bay Project 1975: the governments of Canada and Québec signed the James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement with the Cree and Inuit –Granted exclusive hunting and fishing rights to ~170,000 km 2 of territory and 250 million dollars in financial compensation in return for the right to develop the project

26. James Bay Project: Environmental Impact Caniapiscau and Eastmain rivers were diverted into La Grande River watershed 11,000 km 2 of Boreal forest was submerged Flow of La Grande River doubled

27. La Grande Rivière

28. James Bay Project: Mercury Before the project, local levels of mercury in lakes and rivers were high due to atmospheric pollution and the natural geology of the region When a reservoir is created the existing vegetation and soil is submerged, causing it to decompose and deplete oxygen from the water supply Mercury that exists in a harmless inorganic form in the soil may be transformed by bacteria into methyl mercury once the soil is flooded The toxic methyl mercury is lethal to the fish and can be absorbed and passed up the food chain

29. James Bay Project: Mercury Mercury concentrations in benthic insects, fish (which feed on benthic insects), and nestling tree swallows (which feed on fish) increased after flooding Many native people in villages where fish are a main component of the diet have shown symptoms of mercury poisoning Mercury concentrations in fishery resources of reservoirs may remain substantially elevated for decades after flooding

30. Mercury in fish in La Grande 2 reservoir