1. Physiological optics 10th lecture
Dr. Mohammad Shehadeh

2. Identification of Lenses
Detection of Lens Type
It is possible to determine whether a given lens is spherical, astigmatic or a prism by studying the image formed when two lines, crossed at 90°, are viewed through the lens.

3. Detection of Lens Type
Spherical lenses cause no distortion of the cross.
However, when the lens is moved from side to side and up and down along the arms of the cross, the cross also appears to move.
In the case of a convex lens, the cross appears to move in the opposite direction to the lens, termed as 'against movement',
while a movement in the same direction as the lens, a 'with movement', is observed if the lens is concave

5. Astigmatic lenses cause distortion of the cross unless their axes coincide with the cross lines.
Rotation of the lens thus causes a 'scissors' movement as the crossed lines are progressively displaced
Rotation of a spherical lens has no effect upon the image of the crossed lines.

7. Once the principal meridians of an astigmatic lens have been identified, and aligned with the cross, each meridian may be examined as for a spherical lens.

8. A prism has no optical centre and thus displaces one line of the cross regardless of its position with respect to the cross. Furthermore, the direction of displacement is constant
This test is most effective if the cross lines are placed at the furthest convenient distance and the lens held well away from the eye

10. Neutralisation of Power
Once the nature of the unknown lens is determined, lenses of opposite type and known power are superimposed upon the unknown lens until a combination is found which gives no movement of the image of the cross lines when the test is performed.
At this point the two lenses are said to 'neutralise' each other, and the dioptric power of the unknown lens must equal that of the trial lens of opposite sign (a D lens neutralises a –2.0 D lens).
In the case of astigmatic lenses, each meridian must be neutralised separately.

11. Spectacle lenses are named by their back vertex power
To measure this accurately, the neutralising lens must be placed in contact with the back surface of the spectacle lens.
However, with many highly curved lenses this is not possible and an air space intervenes.
It is then better to place the neutralising lens against the front surface of the spectacle lens

12. Neutralisation is thus somewhat inaccurate for curved lenses of more than about 2 dioptres power and an error of up to 0.50 dioptre may be incurred with powerful lenses.
Nevertheless, for relatively low power lenses neutralisation is still a very useful technique.

13. Aberrations of Optical Systems Including the Eye*
Chromatic Aberration
When white light is refracted at an optical interface, it is dispersed into its component wavelengths or colours
The shorter the wavelength of the light, the more it is deviated on refraction. Thus a series of coloured images are formed when white light is incident upon a spherical lens

15. Correction of Chromatic Aberration
Achromatic Lens Systems
The dispersive power of a material is independent of its refractive index. Thus, there are materials of high dispersive power but low refractive index, and vice versa.
Achromatic lens systems are composed of elements (lenses) of varying material combined so that the dispersion is neutralised while the overall refractive power is preserved.

16. For example, by combining a convex lens of high refractive power and low dispersive power with a concave lens of low refractive power but higher dispersive power, the aberration can be neutralised while preserving most of the convex lens refractive power.
The earliest achromatic lenses were made by combining elements of flint and crown glass.

17. Ocular Chromatic Aberration
Refraction by the human eye is also subject to chromatic aberration, the total dispersion from the red to the blue image being approximately 2.00D.
The emmetropic eye focuses for the yellow–green (555 nm).
This wavelength focus lies between the blue and red foci, being slightly nearer to the red

18. Duochrome Test
 In clinical practice the chromatic aberration of the eye is made use of in the duochrome test.
The test consists of two ranks of black Snellen letters, silhouetted against illuminated coloured glass.
one is mounted on red background , and the lower rank is on green background

19. Red and green are used because their wavelength foci straddle the yellow–green by equal amounts (approximately 0.40D on either side).
The patient views the letters by means of red and green light respectively, and can easily tell which appear clearer.
The test is sensitive to an alteration in refraction of 0.25 D or less.
A myopic eye sees the red letters more clearly than the green while a hypermetropic eye sees the green letters more distinctly

21. The test is of particular use in the refraction of myopic patients, who experience eye strain if they are overcorrected (and thus rendered hypermetropic), forcing them to use their accommodation for distance vision.
The patient must see the red letters more clearly than the green at the end of the subjective refraction

22. Colour blindness does not invalidate the test because it depends on the position of the image with respect to the retina.
A colour-blind patient should be asked whether the right or left letters appears clearer

23. Spherical Aberration
It was seen that the prismatic effect of a spherical lens is least in the paraxial zone and increases towards the periphery of the lens. Thus, rays passing through the periphery of the lens are deviated more than those passing through the paraxial zone of the lens

25. Correction of Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration may be reduced by occluding the periphery of the lens by the use of 'stops' so that only the paraxial zone is used.
Lens form may also be adjusted to reduce spherical aberration, e.g. plano-convex is better than biconvex.
To achieve the best results, spherical surfaces must be abandoned and the lenses ground with aplanatic surfaces, that is, the peripheral curvature is less than the central curvature

26. Aplanatic (aspheric) curve to correct spherical aberration.

27. Correction of Spherical Aberration cont.
Another technique of reducing spherical aberration is to employ a doublet.
This consists of a principal lens and a somewhat weaker lens of different refractive index cemented together .
The weaker lens must be of opposite power, and because it too has spherical aberration, it will reduce the power of the periphery of the principal lens more than the central zone.
Usually, such doublets are designed to be both aspheric and achromatic.

28. Diagram showing the principle of the aspheric doublet lens.

29. Ocular Spherical Aberration
The effect of spherical aberration in the human eye is reduced by several factors .
(1) The anterior corneal surface is flatter peripherally than at its centre, and therefore acts as an aplanatic surface.
(2) The nucleus of the lens of the eye has a higher refractive index than the lens cortex . Thus the axial zone of the lens has greater refractive power than the periphery.
(3) in the eye the iris acts as a stop to reduce spherical aberration. The impairment of
visual acuity that occurs when the pupil is dilated is almost entirely due to spherical aberration. Optimum pupil size is 2–2.5 mm. (regarding spherical aberrations)
(4) Finally, the retinal cones are much more sensitive to light which enters the eye paraxially than to light which enters obliquely through the peripheral cornea (Stiles–Crawford effect). This directional sensitivity of the cone photoreceptors limits the visual effects of the residual spherical aberration in the eye.

30. Ocular spherical aberration (SA): compensatory mechanisms.

31. Oblique Astigmatism
Oblique astigmatism is an aberration which occurs when rays of light traverse a spherical lens obliquely.
When a pencil of light strikes the lens surfaces obliquely a toric effect is introduced.
The emerging rays form a Sturm's conoid with two line foci

32. Oblique astigmatism. FH and FV represent the horizontal and vertical line foci of a Sturm's conoid.

33. Oblique astigmatism occurs with spectacle lenses when the line of sight is not parallel with the principal axis of the lens.
It may also be a cause of reduced acuity in patients with restricted eye movement who adopt a compensatory head posture and look obliquely through peripheral portions of their spectacle lenses.
Obviously, the higher the spectacle lens power, the greater the unwanted cylindrical power induced by the aberration.

34. Pantoscopic tilt
In daily life adults spend most time looking slightly downward from the primary position, and spectacles are therefore made with the lower borders of the lenses tilted towards the cheek (Pantoscopic tilt)
it may be a cause of intolerance in high power spectacle wearers if new frames are dispensed which have a different angle of pantoscopic tilt from the patient's previous glasses.
oblique astigmatism is considerably affected by the form of the lens used. It is much worse in biconvex and biconcave lenses than in meniscus lenses.

35. Angle of pantoscopic tilt.

36. best form lenses,
Calculations have been made and tables compiled indicating the optimum form of single lenses for reducing both spherical and oblique aberrations. Such lenses are known as best form lenses,
and they are usually in meniscus form

37. Ocular Oblique Astigmatism
This aberration occurs in the human eye but its visual effect is minimal.
The factors which reduce ocular oblique astigmatism are as follows:
(1) The aplanatic curvature of the cornea reduces oblique astigmatism as well as spherical aberration.
(2) The retina is not a plane surface, but a spherical surface. In practice the radius of curvature of the retina in the emmetropic eye means that the circle of least confusion of the Sturm's conoid formed by oblique astigmatism falls on the retina.
(3) Finally, the astigmatic image falls on peripheral retina which has relatively poor resolving power compared with the retina at the macula. Visual appreciation of the astigmatic image is therefore limited.

38. Coma
Coma is really spherical aberration applied to light coming from points not lying on the principal axis.
Rays passing through the periphery of the lens are deviated more than the central rays and come to a focus nearer the principal axis .
This results in unequal magnification of the image formed by different zones of the lens.
The composite image is not circular but elongated like a coma or comet.

40. Correction of Coma Aberration
This aberration can be avoided by limiting rays to the axial area of the lens, and by using the principal axis of the lens rather than a subsidiary axis.
Ocular coma aberration is not of practical importance for the reasons given under oblique astigmatism.

41. Image Distortion
When an extended object is viewed through a spherical lens, the edges of the object, viewed through the peripheral zones of the lens, are distorted .
This is due to the increased prismatic effect of the periphery of the lens which produces uneven magnification of the object.
A concave lens causes 'barrel‘ distortion while a convex lens causes 'pincushion' distortion.
These effects prove a real nuisance to wearers of high-power spectacle lenses, e.g. aphakic patients.

42. Image distortion.

43. Curvature of Field
The term 'curvature of field' indicates that a plane object gives rise to a curved image .
This occurs even when spherical aberration, oblique astigmatism and coma have been eliminated.
The effect is dependent upon the refractive index of the lens material and the curvature of the lens surfaces.

45. Ocular Curvature of Field
In the eye the curvature of the retina compensates for curvature of field.