1. Memory Management

2. History Run-time management of dynamic memory is a necessary activity for modern programming languages Lisp of the 1960’s was one of the first languages to incorporate automatic memory management Key for functional and logic programming languages Many different approaches: Tombstone Locks and Keys Mark-sweep Generational etc.

3. Heap Run-time stack clarifies our understanding of how memory is organized to implement subprograms Heap helps us understand the run-time behavior of dynamic objects Data Segment static and/or global variables run-time stack (local) space heap (dynamic) space

4. Static and Run-time Stack Static memory contains values whose: Storage requirements are known before run time Remain constant throughout the life of the program Run-time stack Center of control for dispatching active functions, local variables and parameter-argument linkage

5. Heap Contains values that are dynamically allocated and structured while the program is running E.g. strings, dynamic arrays, objects, linked-lists By its very nature, becomes fragmented as it is used for dynamic allocation and deallocation of storage blocks of different sizes

6. Values in the heap For simplicity, assume each memory word in the heap can have one of three states: Unused – not allocated to the program Undef – allocated, but not yet assigned a value Value – e.g. int or float 7undef120 4unused undef0unused h n

7. Heap management New and delete allow the program to obtain and release a contiguous block of memory words New returns the address of the first word in a contigous block of k-unused works and marks them undef E.g. new(5) h+10 7undef120 4unused undef0 unused h n

8. Garbage and Dangling Pointers Any block of heap memory that cannot be accessed by the program Easily created: class node { int value; node next; }... node p, q; p = new node(); q = new node(); node p q p q null p q ? delete(p); q=p;

9. Garbage collection Ideally, we’d never have garbage in the heap However, pinpointing the moment the block is no longer needed by the program can be complex Instead, when the heap becomes full (or some other indicator) we reclaim all blocks that are garbage Three major strategies: Reference counting Mark-sweep Copy collection

10. Reference Counting Assumes that the initial heap is a continuous chain of nodes called the free list Each node has an additional integer field that contains a count of the number of pointers referencing that node As the program runs, nodes are taken from the free list and connected to each other via pointers “Eager” approach

11. Reference Counting 0 0 0 32 10 free_list p q... Reference Count

12. Algorithm for assignment p = q 1. Reference count for p increased by 1 2. Reference count for q decreased by 1 3. If q’s count is zero, the reference count for each of its descendents is decreased by 1, q’s node returned to free_list a) Repeat for each of q’s descendants 4. Pointer q is assigned the (reference) value of p

13. Fundamental Flaw? p.next = null; null31 10 p q

14. Reference Counting Advantage: Occurs dynamically (overhead distributed over the run-time life of the program) Disadvantages: Failure to detect inaccessible circular chains Storage overhead created by appending integer reference counts to every node Performance overhead (each pointer allocation/deallocation)

15. Mark-Sweep Called into action only when the heap is full Results in two passes through the heap First pass : Mark pass Every heap block that can be reached by following a chain of pointers originating in the run-time stack in marked accessible (mark bit set to 1) Second pass: Sweep pass Returns all unmarked nodes to the free_list Unmarks all nodes that had been marked in mark pass “Lazy” approach

16. Mark Sweep (initial configuration) 0 null 0 00 00 free_list p q... null Mark Bit

17. Mark Sweep (after first pass) 1 null 1 10 00 free_list p q... null

18. Mark-Sweep (after second pass) 0 null 0 0 0 00free_list p q...

19. Mark-Sweep vs. Reference Counting Advantages of mark-sweep Reclaims all garbage in the heap Only invoked when the heap is full Disadvantages: When invoked, takes more time May only result in a small number of cells that can be places on the free_list Variations: Incremental mark-sweep Only do pieces of the heap

20. Copy Collection A time-space compromise compared to mark-sweep Only called when the heap is full Only makes one pass through the heap Requires much more memory Only half the entire heap space is actively available for allocating new memory blocks

21. Copy Collection (initial configuration) free p q from_space to_space

22. Copy Collection (post gc) free p q from_space to_space

23. Copy Collection vs Mark Sweep Let R : the number of active heap blocks r : the ratio of R to the heap size hs Efficiency : the amount of memory reclaimed per unit time Then: If r is much less than hs/2, copy collection is more efficient As r approaches hs/2, then mark-sweep becomes more efficient

24. Dangling Pointers Tombstone: extra heap cell that is a pointer to the heap-dynamic variable The actual pointer variable points only at tombstones When heap-dynamic variable de-allocated, tombstone remains but set to nil Costly in time and space Locks-and-keys: Pointer values are represented as (key, address) pairs Heap-dynamic variables are represented as variable plus cell for integer lock value When heap-dynamic variable allocated, lock value is created and placed in lock cell and key cell of pointer

25. Many different algorithms Hybrid systems that select between mark-sweep and copy collection depending on r Generational Collection: “Recently created regions contain high % of garbage” while older regions do not - Lieberman and Hewitt 85 Like copy-collection, divide heap into multiple regions New objects allocated to the “nursery” Age object “ages” promoted out of the nursery