1. Atoms, Molecules and Ions

2.  Greeks (1000BC – 400BC) First to suggest that all matter was composed of 4 fundamental substances: Fire, Earth, Water and Air. Democritus and Leucippos believed that matter was composed of small indivisible particles  However, the Greeks had no experiments to test their ideas, no definitive answer could be reached.  Alchemy (400BC – 1500) Mystics and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap metals to gold. Many alchemist were serious scientists and discovered many elements.

3.  Georg Bauer (1494-1555) Development of systematic metallurgy (extraction of metal from ores)  Robert Boyle (1627-1691) First chemist to perform truly quantitative experiments. Measured the relationship between the pressure and volume of air. Initial idea of compounds and elements led to the discovery of several new elements and shot down the Greek’s idea of 4 atoms.  Georg Stahl (1660-1734) Studies of combustion led to the idea of a substance flowing out of a burning material and he called it Phlogiston.  Joseph Priestly (1733-1804) Found a gas that supported combustion and called it dephlogisticated air.

4.  Law of conservation of mass Discovered by Antoine Lavoisier Quantitative experiments where he measured the mass of reactants and products in different chemical reactions.  Law of definite proportions Discovered by Joseph Proust Found that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass.  Law of multiple proportions Discovered by John Dalton Found that two elements can form a series of compounds with different ratios of each element.

5.  Theory Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms of a given element are identical. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms.  Proposed the first table of atomic masses (later proven incorrect)

6.  Electron J.J. Thomson passed electrical current through partially evacuated tubes called cathode-ray tubes. Thomson found that the ray emanated from the cathode (negative electrode) and repelled the negative pole of an applied electric field. Proposed that all atoms must contain electrons since the cathode could be made from many different types of metals. Assumed that the atoms must contain some positive charge. Proposed what is known as the plumb pudding model of the atom.

7.  The nuclear atom Ernest Rutherford carried out an experiment to test Thomson’s proposed atomic model. This experiment is known as the “Gold Foil Experiment.”  Rutherford shot alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold foil.  If Thomson’s model is correct most of the alpha particles would shoot directly through the foil and a few may be deflected slightly due to the positive charges spread throughout the atom.  Rutherford found that most alpha particles did in fact go directly through but occasionally an alpha particle was deflected at a large angle or directly back at the source.  From these results, Rutherford knew that Thomson’s model was incorrect and he proposed the idea of the nucleus containing the positive charges.

8.  Nucleus Protons  Contain a positive charge equal in magnitude to an electron  Mass = 1.67x10 -27 kg Neutrons  Neutral particle having virtually the same mass as the proton.  Isotopes Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Represented using nuclear symbols or hyphen notation.  Nuclear symbol  Contains the element’s symbol preceded by the mass number as a superscript and the atomic number as a subscript  Hyphen notation  Contains the element’s name written out followed by the mass number.  Examples:

9.  Chemical bonds Are the forces that hold atoms together Three types of chemical bonds exist:  Covalent  Results from the sharing of electrons/typically between two nonmetals/results in molecules  Ionic  Results from the attraction of oppositely charged ions (cations/anions)/typically between a metal and nonmetal/results in compounds  Metallic  Results from the mutual sharing of valence electrons/electrons are free to move form one atom to another through the empty or partially filled d orbitals in an attempt to satisfy all of the atoms.

10.  Types of atoms found on the periodic table Metals Nonmetals metalloids  Specific groups of the table Alkali metals Halogens Alkaline earth metals Transition metals Noble gases Lanthanides Actinides

11.  Binary compounds Compounds containing only 2 different atoms. Two different types of binary compounds exist.  Binary ionic compounds  Binary covalent compounds Rules for naming  Ionic compounds (type-1 metal with only 1 charge)  Ionic compounds (type-2 metal can have numerous charges)  Covalent compounds (type-3)

12.  Ionic compounds with polyatomic ions Rules  Named the same as type-1 and type-2 but polyatomic’s name is used instead of element name  You must memorize the common polyatomic ions.  Acids Molecules that produce free H+ ions when dissolved in water. And acid can be viewed as one or more H+ attached to an anion. Rules for naming.  No oxygen present  Hydro- ______ - ic acid  Oxyacids  Name is based on the anion’s name with a suffix of –ic or –ous.

13.  P4O10  Nb2O5  HClO3  Li2O  Ti(NO3)4  H2SO4  Calcium oxide  Dioxygen difluoride  Vanadium V fluoride  Phosphorous acid  Gallium oxide