2. Important distinction Motor learning (little research) vs. Motor control and development (more research)

3. Motor control & development Fair amount of work done in framework of “dynamical systems” Key point: Interaction of SUBJECT-TASK- ENVIRONMENT

4. Example: Non-linear dynamics Example –Newborn stepping reflex –Reflex “disappears” within a few months –Traditional explanation is that cortical maturation inhibits reflexive movement –However pattern is seen when child is on the back, with limbs in different relationship to gravity –Stepping reflex disappears because legs gain weight rapidly; can’t lift in upright posture –Implication is that development is not necessarily (all) about brain control, but is rather about interactions of tissue and environmental factors

5. Relevance for LMRVT 5-10 “Raspberries;” /m/, etc. –“ Semi-occluded vocal tract” Helps to abduct vocal folds (good: counteract hyperfunction) Helps to oscillate vocal folds (good: intensity) –Titze, 2010

6. Motor learning Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975; 1976) –Recall and recognition schemata –Motor program and parameters

7. Schema theory predictions (1) Importance of perception in motor learning –Perceptual pre- exposure (tracking task, Adams & Creamer, 1962) –Observational learning (juggling; sign language; dance; surgery; review by Schmidt & Lee, 2010) Learner’s active responses to exposures appears important for the effects

8. Effects mediated by mirror neurons? (e.g. Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004) http://www.6seconds.org/images- static/neuron.jpg

9. Relevance for LMRVT 5-10 LMRVT 5-10 consistently pairs perception and production in voice training

10. Schema theory predictions (2) Importance of attention to movement outcomes (not biomechanics) –Extensive work by Wulf & colleagues

11. Relevance to LMRVT 5-10 Child’s attention is directed to voice outcomes (buzzy, easy voice), not biomechanics

12. Schema theory predictions (3) Variable practice should enhance generalization –Seen for numerous tasks from bean bag throwing to arm displacement –Finding may be heightened for children compared to adults Effects particularly enhanced under random practice conditions –Review by Schmidt & Lee, 2010

13. Relevance for LMRVT 5-10 Child practices buzzy voice in numerous phonetic, physical and emotional contexts

14. Consistent with schema theory (4) Infrequent (terminal) KR improves learning in general (5) Whole practice improves learning for “whole” tasks

15. Relevance for LMRVT 5-10 Use of infrequent terminal KR Use of whole practice (with rare exceptions)