1. Top-down hierarchical planning A standard Artificial Intelligence mechanism used for simulating many aspects of ‘intelligent’ behaviour Main reference for planning: Earl Sacerdoti (1977) A Structure for Plans and Behavior, Elsevier North-Holland. For text planning: Johanna Moore & Cécile Paris (1993) “Planning text for advisory dialogues: capturing intentional and rhetorical information”. Computational Linguistics 19(4):651-694

2. Requirements A representation of the ‘state of the world’: also called domain knowledge –Be-at (Ed, Washington) A library of plan operators appropriate for our planning tasks A planning mechanism, or algorithm, for constructing a plan to change the world from its current state to some goal state.

3. Plan operators The job of a plan operator is to say how some effect can be achieved –i.e., typically changing the world or someone’s beliefs about the world to do this it must also: –say how the world must be in order for the plan operator to work (the preconditions) –say what must be done in order for the effect to come into operation

4. Abstraction hierarchies If all possible actions were equal, then planning is made even more complex because there are very many more planning operators to be considered at each step. Solution: –hierarchical planning actions are divided up into more specific parts sequences of actions can be grouped together and given a more abstract label. –e.g.: dinner > cooking dinner, eating dinner, washing up cooking dinner > preparing the ingredients, cooking, serving

5. Action hierarchies have dinner prepare dinnerwash up eat dinnerwash dishes dry dishes stack dishes serve dinner mix together cook ingredients cut ingredients clean ingredients

6. Two kinds of operators Primitive operators –actions that are directly ‘executable’ –no body Abstract operators –actions that need to be decomposed into less abstract actions –decomposition specified in the body

7. A plan operator: definition Operator: names the operator and says what the main objects involved are Effect: states what effect (i.e., what change in the world) the successful application of the planning operator would bring Preconditions: states what has to be the case in the world for the plan to be used Body: says what actions a more abstract action must be broken down to in order to apply the operator Only when the actions in the body have been applied is the effect achieved!!

8. A plan operator’s role during the planning process PLAN OPERATOR effect preconditions body

9. A complete plan… is a hierarchically organized sequence of actions carrying out the actions in sequence will guarantee that the preconditions for achieving all subsequent effects are met in time when all the sub-actions of a more abstract action have been performed, the abstract action has also been achieved and the corresponding effect also