Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Design Today… Sound design used.

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Design Today… Sound design used to be relatively simple… Specific effects, occasional music, some reinforcement Now sound is an integral part of the design process… Credited by USA (United Scenic Artists) Improvement in equipment and technology has made sound more integral and more available Film and television have raised audience expectations as well

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Functions of Sound in the Theatre Music Historically preshow, intermission, & postshow Comedies historically less music than tragedies/dramas Modern expansion Themes for characters and/or scenes Constructed sound – Any sound effects created by editing, manipulating, or changing previously recorded sounds Lyrics allowed when appropriate Focus on supporting psychological intent

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Functions of Sound in the Theatre Effects Sole effects – dog bark, phone ring, doorbell – used to be designer’s focus Effects now create a backdrop for scenes – layered effects to create an environment Some effects can be created and/or manipulated by a synthesizer… Synthesizer: A musical instrument that creates sounds electronically, can be used to create a close facsimile of instrumental, natural, or vocal tones.

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Functions of Sound in the Theatre Reinforcement Whenever artificial means are needed to boost the loudness levels of actors’ voices – often balancing acoustics of room with voices and/or music… Terminology – Acoustics: The sound-transmission characteristics of a room, space, or material; also, the science that studies these qualities Balance: To adjust the loudness and equalization levels of individual signals while mixing, to achieve an appropriate blend

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The Nature of Sound Sound is a pressure wave that moves at 1,130 feet per second (in air and at sea level) A pressure source compresses air – the compression wave travels through the air until it strikes a receptor The human ear is a receptor – it converts the mechanical force of the compression wave into a neurological impulse which is sent to the brain and then interpreted as particular tones and qualities

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The Nature of Sound Frequency The rate at which an object vibrates – measured in cycles per second (hertz or Hz) The pitch of a sound is the characteristic tone produced by an object – higher pitch = higher frequency Average Human hearing range: 20 – 17,000 Hz Human with good hearing: 15 – 22,000 Hz

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Intensity Synonymous with loudness (amplitude) Loudness can change without effecting pitch Loudness is measured in decibels Decibels (dB): A unit for expressing the intensity of sounds; an increase or decrease of one decibel is just about the smallest change in loudness that the human ear can detect. The Nature of Sound

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The relative loudness of certain sounds… Measured in dB Jet plane at 100 feet Threshold of pain Loud rock band at 5 ft Thunder Loud street traffic at 5 ft Normal conversation at 5 ft Quiet street noise Quiet residence Quiet whisper Threshold of Hearing 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The Nature of Sound Timbre Distinctive quality of a sound that makes it unique (qualitative) Based on harmonics of the sound-producing body Pure sounds rarely occur in nature – most natural sounds produce a variety of overtones Pitch = the fundamental / base frequency The amplitude or loudness of each harmonic is less than that of the fundamental – the amount of each harmonic is determined by the physical structure of the source Harmonics: Frequencies that are exact multiples of a fundamental pitch or frequency

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The Design Process in Sound Design Commitment Analysis – Consider various questions from budget to schedule to the script & production needs Research – Both music and sound effects – know why each cue is in place – psychological and desired impact! Incubation – Let the design sit unattended Selection – Pick each specific cue Implementation – Record the cues and build them into the space Evaluation

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Acoustics Acoustics: The science that studies the absorption and reflection of sound In theatre – focus on understanding how stage and audience space acoustics affect the audience’s hearing and understanding of the sound (language & music) of the play A room’s shape vitally affects the reflection of sound… Reverberation (reflection in a series of echoes) causes garbling of the sound – parallel walls generate large amounts of reverberation However, music likes reverberation while voice does not – contrasting needs for contrasting agendas

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Acoustic balancing for both speech and music is a great challenge which more and more theatres are attempting to do by using acoustically adaptable auditoriums… Shape and materials used in theatre architecture impacts the acoustics of the performance space… Basic Acoustics

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Acoustic Balancing A well-balanced room for speech has a decay time of ¼ to ¾ second… A well-balanced room for music has a decay time of ¾ to 1 ½ second… Compromise with acoustically adaptable rooms…

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Production 1960 to early 1990’s – analog recording with the tape deck 1980’s – introduction of CD technology & the move to digital Digital age also supported by the growth of computer technology – rise of technology signals the end of the tape era in most theatres Tape – analog – ‘softer’ sound – hands on editing CD – digital – crisper sound – shift to digital / visual editing Tape deck: A magnetic-tape transport mechanism used to record an electrical signal on magnetic tape; also used to play back that signal; does not contain playback amplifier and speaker

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Sound is picked up by a transducer Transducer converts the sound from mechanical energy into electrical energy Transducer sends signal to a storage device to be recorded or stored

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Terminology Transducer: A device that converts energy from one state into another Microphone: A transducer used to convert sound waves into electrical energy Amplifier: Device used to boost the signal received from a transducer to a level that will drive a loudspeaker Loudspeaker: A transducer used to convert an electrical signal into mechanical energy

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Signal sent from storage device to an amplifier Amplifier increases the power of the electrical signal so it can drive a loudspeaker Loudspeaker converts energy from electric to mechanical/acoustic

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Terminology Tone: A generic term referring to the intensity of the component frequencies contained in any particular sound Equalizer: a.k.a. EQ An electronic device that selectively boosts or attenuates specific frequencies or ranges of frequencies Playback System: Devices used to play recorded sound, usually composed of some combination of turntable, tape deck, CD player, computer, equalizer, amplifier, and speaker Preamplifier: A device that boosts the level of a signal, without alteration or reshaping, to the requisite input signal level of the next piece of equipment in a sound system Graphic EQ: An EQ with individual slide controls affecting specific segments – so called because interface displays picture of the equalization of full spectrum

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Adding an equalizer into the system for recording and playback Recording Playback

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Basic Sound-System Configuration Creating a basic stereo system for recording / playback Stereo (or more) systems are common – recreates a more lifelike sense of sound and space Stereo is most commonly thought of as left (L) & right (R)

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. A graphic equalizer – Note the two separate levels (stereo signal) Also note how the controls create a visual (graphic) representation of the wave form as it is affected by the EQ Basic Sound-System Configuration

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Planning a Theatre Sound System A basic sound system – Must consider input (devices for recording) Must consider output (devices for playback) Must consider reinforcement (devices for amplification) Speakers, amplifiers, mixers (controls sound routing), CD players, computers, tape decks, microphones… The list can be endless – consider what your theatre needs to accomplish and what types of productions it does

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound-System Equipment Loudspeakers & Speaker Systems Loudspeaker = transducer that converts electrical into mechanical energy Signal activates electromagnet Electromagnet generates magnetic field Field causes voice coil to vibrate Vibration causes speaker cone to move, generating sound

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound-System Equipment Loudspeakers & Speaker Systems Terminology Woofer: A low frequency speaker, with a frequency range from 20 to approx. 150-250 Hz Mid-range Speaker: A speaker designed to reproduce the middle range of audible frequencies – roughly 200 – 1,000 Hz Tweeter: A high-frequency speaker, generally designed to reproduce from approx. 1,000 to 20,000 Hz Pressure Driver: A unit housing a large magnet that vibrates a very thin metallic diaphragm to create mid-range and high-frequency sounds Horn: A dispersion device attached to the front of a pressure driver to direct the sound emitted by the driver into a specific pattern

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Loudspeakers & Speaker Systems A Pressure Driver… Must be used with a horn to disperse the sound Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Loudspeakers & Speaker Systems A variety of acoustical horns for use with pressure drivers… Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Speaker Cabinets Speaker cabinets not only protect the coil, they provide a reverberation surface for sound, changing the loudness and timbre of the sound… As the speaker works, it causes air compression – the cabinet amplifies these waves depending on how it is designed Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Speaker Cabinets Radiation characteristics of various speaker types… Cabinets are designed to compensate for these variances… Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Speaker Cabinets Finite baffle (Inefficient – airtight enclosure) Bass-Reflex Enclosure (Port in front to allow frequencies produced on the rear compression to come out in phase with those from the front compression) Ducted Port (Port like bass-reflex but specifically tuned to a particular frequency range) Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Crossover Network Optimum speaker performance is gained when a speaker is working with a specific range of frequencies – To aid the speaker in working efficiently, a crossover is placed to filter out unwanted frequencies in the electrical signal Crossovers make sure that woofers receive low frequencies, tweeters receive high frequencies, and so on… Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Power Amplifiers The sole reason for the amplifier is to boost the low-voltage input signal received from an input source to a high-voltage signal capable of driving a loudspeaker… Two switches – on/off and loudness… Power needs must be matched by amplifiers – Check you RMS rating to be sure you know the power-load you are working with Amps impact the clarity and quality of the sound! Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Equalizers EQs boost or attenuate portions of the signal to affect the loudness of specific segments of the sound spectrum… Analog EQ – older style EQ less used now Graphic EQ – Graphically displays the equalization of the full spectrum Parametric EQ – Similar to the graphic EQ but works with different controls – often used for balancing sound during playback in an auditorium Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Preamplifier An electronic device that raises the output of a low-level signal so that it can be read and processed, without distortion, by the next piece of equipment in the sound system. Most mixers require that devices come into their system at line-level (approx..75 to 1 volt) – preamps boost signals such as microphones or turntables to that level… DJ Pre Mic Pre Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Mixer Device designed to mix the output of a variety of sources and route the blended signal on to other devices – one of the most important tools!!! Digital Mixer Analog mixer Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Mixer Mixers can be used for both recording and playback… Allows you to send a stereo feed into your recording device from multiple inputs… Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Patch Bay: Allows for cross-connection of various pieces of equipment Outputs and inputs are attached to corresponding receptacles on the patch panel – A patch cord is used to connect the output of one piece of equipment to another Sound-System Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Recording and Playback Equipment Both analog and digital are in use – Digital is taking over slowly Show control allows multiple digital devices to be controlled from one main computer – controls sound, lighting, stage effects, etc. using MIDI

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. MIDI a.k.a. Musical Instrument Digital Interface was developed in the early 1980s to allow synthesizers to communicate… MIDI is a standard digital protocol for transmission of data – communication language for sound equipment! Computers are the top of the digital food chain, controlling other devices that have MIDI capabilities… MIDI has allowed show control to develop and flourish in live performance Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Computer The heart of most theatre systems Used in every function – recording, playback, editing, storage, and show control Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Digital Audio Tape (DAT) Cassette tape-based recorders – work much like videocassette recorders rather than traditional analog tape recorders Allows the addition of a marker so an operator can quickly find needed tracks Drawbacks – Temperamental in nature Tape is fragile Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Compact Disc (CD) Standard storage device for the industry Audio information is stored in binary code – A series of reflective & non-reflective surfaces Uses a laser to ‘read’ the disc Main reason for dominance – cost & equality CD-R vs. CD-RW Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. MiniDisc Originally a consumer product – now available in theatre Easy to mark Allows for record / erase of entire disc or individual tracks – Tracks can be reordered / added / removed Drawbacks – Not a reliable playback source for production Difficulties with re-recorded discs Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Digital Cartridge Machines Digital versions of the NAB analog cartridge machines developed for broadcast Compact & silent machines Start instantly Allows for marking to label the cartridge Automatically re-cue themselves Disadvantage: Requires one cartridge per cue Now – software called WaveCart that mimics this for computer systems Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Tape Deck Analog reel-to-reel decks were old standard Still exist in some theatres so it is good to know how to cut tape and repair these machines Slowly being replaced by digital alternatives in most cases… Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Microphones convert mechanical sound waves into electrical energy They are used for recording and reinforcement in performance Microphones can alter the frequency, timbre, and dynamic range (loudness variations) when converting the sound… Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Carbon Microphone Uses granules of carbon to generate the electrical signal Mouthpiece in telephones – rugged but with very narrow frequency response Not used much in theatre Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Crystal Microphone Uses piezoelectric crystals – certain crystals produce voltage when pressure is applied… Very rugged but limited frequency response – usually found in less expensive tape recorders Not used much in theatre Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Ribbon Microphone Uses a thin corrugated strip of metal vibrating between two magnetic poles – vibration generates voltage… Very good frequency response but very delicate mic Often used inn radio broadcasting – adds color and warmth to the voice… Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Dynamic Microphone Uses a small coil with an electrical charge – pressure strikes the diaphragm – coil moves up and down in response – movement induces an electrical current Very good frequency response Rugged Workhorse of the theatre Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Condenser Microphone Electrically complex Diaphragm is placed parallel to a charged plate – changes in the space between the two results in voltage shifts, translated as electrical signal Excellent frequency response Requires a power supply to keep the plate charged Requires some care in handling Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Pick-up Patterns Omni-directional – spherical pattern from the mic head Bidirectional – Figure 8 pattern (ribbon mics) Directional – Cardioid – heart-shaped Hypercardioid – More directional cardioid (Shotgun mic) Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Wireless Microphones Does not require a cable to connect to mixer or other equipment Signal is broadcast by a low-power FM transmitter to a reciever and then is fed to mixer Requires battery power to power the transmitter Can also receive other broadcast signals on receiver Expensive to get high quality - $1,000 - $3,000 per mic Commonly used to reinforce shows Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Microphones Handheld microphone Wireless microphone PZM (pressure zone microphone) Recording and Playback Equipment

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Equipment Maintenance Never eat, drink, or smoke in the booth or around the equipment (or any electronic equipment!) Cover all decks, amplifiers, etc. with cloth dust covers when not in use Store all microphones in a padded surface cabinet Coil all microphone and speaker cable and hang on peg board when not in use Inspect connectors before and after each use to insure proper working order Never blow on a microphone to see if it is working – speak or gently snap your fingers!

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. The Sound Booth Used to facilitate the recording and playback of cues during production Design is personal but should be efficient and logical… Usually an enclosed space so recording can be done If reinforcement is the main goal of design, consider a house mix position to allow operator to hear the show from audience space – improves balance and focus of the sound mix!

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Rehearsal and Performance Procedures Follows the same path as lighting Media is intangible so requires clear & concise instructions for all involved Notes must be taken on equipment and cues in a manner that allows for adequate ‘reproduction’ which matches technical rehearsals

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Playback Layout Pattern Sound is only noticed when a mistake is made! Cues must happen in a routine fashion so prepare for the production Name cues appropriately Number cues in sequential order to avoid confusion Always make a backup after any changes to keep a good copy of the show at hand! Rehearsal and Performance Procedures

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Practical Considerations Preamp and Power-Amp Output Mic-level – low voltage ( 1 to 750 millivolts) produced by microphones, turntables, and other gear Line level – dynamic voltage level used between various pieces of equipment in the system Power level – higher voltage level produced by amplifiers to drive speakers Power amps range between 1 and 35 volts output – careful hook-up required not to destroy equipment!

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Speaker Hook-up Methods Low-Voltage Systems Best practice to match the impedance of a speaker with the output impedance of an amplifier Impedance: Resistance in an AC circuit – measured in ohms Output terminal8-ohm speaker hookup

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Low-Voltage Systems Need to wire speakers in a variety of ways to make most of power issues Wired in series S + S = circuit impedance 8 + 8 = 16 ohms Simply add the speaker impedance together Speaker Hook-up Methods

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Low-Voltage Systems Need to wire speakers in a variety of ways to make most of power issues Wired in parallel S + S = circuit impedance N 8 + 8 = 16 = 8 = 4 ohms 2 2 2 2 2 Speaker impedance is added together and then divided twice by the number of speakers in use Speaker Hook-up Methods

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Low-Voltage Systems Need to wire speakers in a variety of ways to make most of power issues Wired in combination Uses both serial and parallel wirings To determine impedance, use formulas from both styles of wiring where applicable Speaker Hook-up Methods

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Low-Voltage Systems In general… Speakers wired in parallel have a cleaner sound than speakers wired in series Series wired speakers have a loss of clarity and quality Most amps can drive mismatched loads but be careful damage when driving too much or too little Impedance matched to load will result in best performance & quality Speaker Hook-up Methods

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. High-Voltage Systems Standardized at 25 and 70 volts Advantages: -Effectives solution for large number of speakers on same system -Transmit signal over long cable run with less loss of quality -Reduce effects of inductive interference Often used in monitor systems Speaker Hook-up Methods

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Balanced vs. Unbalanced Lines Unbalanced Often used to hook-up equipment in booth – short runs with low magnetic interference Balanced Used with microphones to keep induced interference to a minimum Costs more!

Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Design Today… Sound design used.

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Theatrical Design and Production Chapter 19: Sound Design and Technology © 2006 McGraw-Hill. All right reserved. Sound Design Today… Sound design used.

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