1. A History of Games staffan.bjork@chalmers.se

2. But First! Exercise today! Time: 13.00-15.00 Meet Torg 3 (here, duh.) Instructions given there Reminder Deadline for assignment #1 is on Monday Instructions available on the course web site

3. Today’s lecture History of Games Before Computer Games History of Computer Games Computer Games today & tomorrow Famous Game Designers Intended takeaways Overviews of types of games & the game industry Gameplay mechanics Inside views on design 116 Slides…

4. Playing is older than games Playing done in many animal species Training Passing knowledge Determining social rang First way to negate Possible between species Communication non- verbal

5. First Games? - First suspect: Sport Ritualized forms of other activities Running Wrestling Archery Gameplay features Produce a measure of physical skill by competition against other person

6. First Games? - Second suspect: Divination Randomizers Objects used for divination Evidence Staves found in Tutankhamen’s tomb (~1323 BC) together with gameboard Similar staves found in the royal tombs at Ur together with another gameboard Mentioned in the Rig Veda (~1500 BC) Gameplay features Produce a random outcome within well-defined limits and clear states Source: Parlett, David, The Oxford History of Board Games, Oxford University Press, 1999

7. First Organized Games Funerals Gladiators Religious festivals Olympic Games, 776 BC Judges Truces between countries, Participants status as religious pilgrims Gladiator Games Celebrate battles at funeral Changed when Julius Caesar organized one in honor of his dead daughter

8. Dice Games Inventors Lydians of Asia according to Herodotus Predecessors Binary Lots Astragals Depicted ~800 BC Gameplay features Provide variety of ranges for randomizers and tie results to abstract measures – numbers Meta game – betting on outcome (but equally possible from sports) Will of the gods - not taxed!

9. Board Games Origins traced to keeping track of player’s scores in dice games Gameplay features Introduced game token to maintain game state Linked series of actions to randomized values to manipulate game state

10. Racing games Interpreting movement on board as physical movement Ludo (from Pachisi, ~700 BC) Backgammon (from Senet & Mehen, 2650+ BC) Gameplay features Introduction of the concept of a game world Introduction of several game tokens controlled by one player introduced choice Capturing other tokens meant that effects of changing one part of the game state by have additional effects – abstract events

11. Perfect Information Games Removal of randomness from board games Chess (referred ~600 AD) Go (from Wei-qi, 2000 BC) Gameplay features 2D game world Focus on mental skills Actions defined by tokens Context-dependent actions Functionally different tokens Possible to predict opponent Additional goals based on space control, space filling, connection, and collection

12. Side note – Perfect Information Racing Games No known examples of evolved variants Design Variants Bantu, 1955 Hare & Tortoise, 1974

13. Imperfect Information Games Making part of the game state unknown to players Stratego Battleship Blind Chess | Kriegspiel Gameplay features Hidden game state Heterogeneous information availability Need of umpire for gameplay to commerce

14. Skill Games Board games where movement is determined by successful action or performance Scrabble Trivial Pursuit Pictionary “Normality Game” Balderdash (Rappakalja) Apples to Apples Gameplay features Introduction of variety of skills – social, artistic

15. Tabletop or Miniature Games Origins in forms of kriegspiel Similar to board games but use graphically depicted miniatures Warhammer Warhammer 40K Gameplay features Continuous game world Players own game tokens they use Requires players to do extra- game activities

16. Card Games Background intertwined with Dominoes & Mah-Jong tiles Modern variants probably Persian origin Brought to Europe by Arabs 13th century Specialized decks quite late Gameplay features Game systems Bipartisan Random but fixed distribution Define Game Space

17. Collectable Card Games Combines card games with idol cards Magic: the gathering Illuminati: new world order Gameplay features Cards have self-contained rules within a rule framework Physical rarity affects value of game token Time-limited functionality of cards

18. Roleplaying Games Expansion from miniature games Dungeons & Dragons, 1974 The Basic Roleplaying System GURPS Gameplay features Unclear winning conditions Unclear end conditions campaigns Game master Unequal power structure Open-ended rule set Mediates the Game World Character development Roleplaying Novel narrative structure – adventure modules D&D 3 rd edition introduced Open Gaming Licenseand id20 Trademark License D&D 4 th edition will include online support

19. Live-Action Roleplaying Games Arose from roleplaying games, improvisational theatre and re- enactment societies Earlier similar activities re-enactments of battles between Osiris and Seth in ancient Egypt ‘carrousel’ games at European courts during the 17th and 18th centuries psychoanalytic methods in the 1920s Gameplay features Players represent their characters Players physically act out what they do in the game Extra-game activities may take a majority of time spent

20. Novelty Games Machines that provide gameplay or lets players test skills Gameplay features Coin-op Machine controls game flow

21. Pinball Reaction to games being banned due to being used for gambling Gameplay features Flippers Electro-mechanical game system

22. Computer Games

23. Spacewar! - 1962 Stephen "Slug" Russell, MIT DEC PDP-1 assembler in 1962 Demonstrate the Type 30 Precision CRT Display “It should demonstrate as many of the computer's resources as possible, and tax those resources to the limit; Within a consistent framework, it should be interesting, which means every run should be different; It should involve the onlooker in a pleasurable and active way -- in short, it should be a game.”

24. Tennis for Two - 1958 William Higinbotham Demonstrate system Analog computer Real-time game

25. A.S. Douglas - 1952 Part of Ph.D. thesis in Human-Computer Interaction Tic-Tac-Toe Play by dialing numbers Computer opponent Emulator http://www.dcs.warwic k.ac.uk/~edsac/

26. Ralph Baer - 1951 Asked to Build the best television set in the world. Built in several prototypes between 1966-1968 Hand controller and light gun Use of sensor Magnavox signed an agreement in 1971 and the first video game system got released in May 1972: Odyssey

27. Computer Space – 1970 Back to Spacewar Nolan Bushnell decided to commercialize Spacewar Stand-alone machine

28. Nolan Bushell - 1972 Atari syzygy Pong Arcade version, 1972 TV-console, 1975 Difficulties getting bank loans due to association with pinball and mafia

29. Pong vs. Pong? In 1972, Magnavox sued Atari Patents on electronic games & electronic ping-pong Settled out of court $700,000 paid-up license Later, other companies had to pay royalties

30. Coin-eaters 1974 to 1975 57 games are released. 1976 53 videogames by 15 companies First controversy Death Race 2000

31. Vector Graphics Space Wars, 1977 Cinematronics pong clone maker Speed Freak, 1977

32. Coin shortage Taito, known for pachinko games Space Invaders, 1978

33. Improvements & Variants Atari Football, Atari, 1978 Screen down Asteroids, Atari, 1978 Initials and High Score Galaxian, Namco, 1979 8-bit color Stratovox, Taito, 1980 Speech sound

34. Platform Games Pac-Man, Namco, 1981 Moru Iwatani Donkey Kong, Nintendo, 1981 Shigeru Miyamoto Introduced Mario & Donkey Kong

35. Game Brains & Cartridges Fairchild Fairchild VES, 1976 Atari VCS Simple Hardware No screen buffer Third Party Developers Activision, 1979 Sued by Atari

36. Home Computers Commodore Commodore PET, 1977 VIC 20, 1980 Commodore 64, 1982 Commodore Amiga, 1985 Amiga 500, 1987 Amiga 2000, 1987 Sinclair ZX80, 1980 ZX81, 1981 ZX Spectrum, 1982 Etc. etc. etc.

37. Crash of Arcade Games Transition Cycles 6-8 years Atari Hubris E.T. games buried? Oversupply 50+ companies Home Consoles Lack of Faith Video games fad Exception exist Paperboy, Atari, 1984 Gauntlet, 1985

38. Games today Following is facts from The Entertainment Software Association (www.theesa.com) and Swedish Game Industry (www.dataspelsbranschen.se) Next: video games

39. Who is the typical gamer?

40. Video Games Next: computer games

41. Computer Games Next: online games

42. Online genres Next: Video games sales

43. Genres (Sweden)

44. Next: computer games sales

45. Next: who plays?

48. Who plays?, cont. Next: industry facts

49. Top 10 Industry Facts (from 2008) (according to the entertainment software association) 1. U.S. computer and video game software sales grew six percent in 2007 to $9.5 billion – more than tripling industry software sales since 1996. 2. 65% of American households play computer or video games. 3. The average game player is 35 years old and has been playing games for 13 years. 4. The average age of the most frequent game purchaser is 40 years old. 5. 40% of all game players are women. In fact, women over the age of 18 represent a significantly greater portion of the game-playing population (33 percent) than boys age 17 or younger (18 percent). 6. In 2008, 26% of Americans over the age of 50 played video games, an increase from nine percent in 1999. 7. 36% of heads of households play games on a wireless device, such as a cell phone or PDA, up from 20% in 2002. 8. 85% of all games sold in 2007 were rated "E" for Everyone, "T" for Teen, or "E10+" for Everyone 10+. 9. 94% of game players under the age of 18 report that their parents are present when they purchase or rent games. 10. 63% of parents believe games are a positive part of their children’s lives.

50. Contemporary computer and video game genres

51. Platform Games Zelda Series Mario Series Both examples of franchises Usually given as examples of good learnability Navigation essential gameplay part

52. Strategy Sprung from board games Traditional Strategy Civilization, 1990 Civilization IV, 2006 Victoria, 2003 Real-time Strategy Dune 2, 1992 Age of Empires, 1997 Resource management essential gameplay part

53. First-Person Shooters First person perspective in 3D environments id Software Wolfenstein 3D, 1992 Doom, 1993 Quake, 1996 Themes sprung from role- playing games… Valve Software Half-Life,1998 (+ Counter- Strike) Bungie Halo, 2001 Often most criticized Graphical violence (Columbine) Navigation and shooting essential gameplay part

54. FPS online FPS usually support deathmatch modes Examples of games dedicated to online play Team Fortress Classic, 1999 Counter-Strike, 1999 Battlefield 1942, 2002 Gameplay as for FPS, plus team work and sometimes specialized roles

55. Massively Multiplayer Online Games Typically based upon role-playing games Ultima Online, Origin Systems, 1997 Everquest, Sony, 2000 Puzzle Pirates, Three Rings, 2001 Sims Online, Maxis, 2003 World of Warcraft, Blizzard Entertainment, 2004 Gameplay typical team work and character development but extra-game aspects as socializing also important

56. Sport Games Annual version FIFA 200X, Electronic Arts, 200X-1 Madden NFL 200X, EA Sports, 200X-1 Tiger Woods PGA Tour, 200X-1 Tightly tied to real-world statistics Volunteers collect Knowledge of real world domain important aspect of game

57. Racing Grand Theft Auto 3, Rockstar Games, 2001 Midtown Madness 3, Digital Illusions, 2003 Navigation essential gameplay part

58. Handheld Games Platforms Game’n’Watch, 1980 Gameboy, 1989 Gameboy Advance, 2001? N-Gage, 2003 Gameboy DS, 2005 PSP, 2005

59. Pervasive Games

60. 60 Famous Game Designers

61. 61/58 Recommended Reading Costikyan, G. I have no words and I must Design, Interactive Fantasy magazine, 1994. Crawford, C. The Art of Computer Game Design, 1992. Crawford, C. The Art of Interactive Design, 2002. Crawford, C. Chris Crawford on Game Design, 2003. Dear, William C. The Dungeon Master: The Disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III, 1984. Demaria, R. & Wilson, J. L. High Score! The Illustrated History of Electronic Games, 2002. King, B. & Borland, J. Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic, 2003. Koster, R. A theory of fun, 2004. Kushner, D. Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture, Random House, 2004. LeBlanc M. Online presentations of Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics model Schuessler, N. & Jackson, S. Game Design – Volume 1: Theory and Practice, 2005 (1981) Valve. Half-Life 2 : Raising the Bar, 2004.

62. 62 Famous Game Designers

63. What game designer have you heard about?

64. What backgrounds do game designer have?

65. 65/58 Will Wright Maxis, Inc. Raid on Bungling Bay, 1984 SimCity, 1989 SimAnt, 1991 The Sims, 2000 The Sims Online, 2002 SimCity 4, 2003 The Sims 2, 2004

66. 66/58 Will Wright on Design Making dynamic models “put the player in the design role” “large solution space” -> “much stronger feeling of empathy” Creates “interactive toys”

67. 67/58 Shigeru Miyamoto Donkey Kong, 1981 Super Mario Bros., 1985 Super Mario 64, 1996 The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, 1998 The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask, 2000 Pikmin, 2001 Super Mario Sunshine, 2002

68. 68/58 Shigeru Miyamoto on Design "A delayed game is eventually good, a bad game is bad forever“ Inspiration from childhood memories Exploring wilderness and caves (Zelda) Attacked by dog on chain (Chain Chomp)

69. 69/58 Sid Meier Solo Fight, 1984 Sid Meier’s Pirates!, 1987 Railroad Tycoon, 1990 Civilization, 1991 Colonization, 1994 Sid Meier’s Gettyburg!, 1997 Sid Meier’s Alpha Centauri, 1999 Civilization IV, 2005

70. 70/58 Sid Meier on Design “be able to play the game and understand it as quickly as possible” “If a player feels there is something they would like to do that the game is not letting them do then that is a failure of the game” “a series of interesting choices” most acclaimed games were inspired by board games designed by Francis Tresham vf 1829 (Railroad Tycoon) Civilization (Civilization) Spanish Main (Pirates!) maybe “one more turn”

71. 71/58 Chris Crawford Eastern Front (1941), 1981 Balance of Power, 1985 Balance of the Planet, 1990 Storytron (Erasmatron), 1992-2006? Suggested Reading Crawford, C. The Art of Computer Game Design, 1992. Crawford, C. The Art of Interactive Design, 2002. Crawford, C. Chris Crawford on Game Design, 2003.

72. 72/58 Chris Crawford on Design “It’s easier to learn from turkeys than from masterworks” “Accept full moral responsibility for the games you design” “Always delete clever ideas that don’t add to the design” “The logic of the game dominates; pick a topic to fit it” “Lose the storyboards” “Conceptualize your design in terms of its challenge, not its topic” “Keep the player on the razor edge of failure, but don’t let him fall” “Those who would build the future must understand the past”

73. 73/58 Peter Molyneux Populous, 1989 Powermonger, 1990 Theme Park, 1994 Magic Carpet, 1994 Syndicate, 1993 Dungeon Keeper, 1997 Black & White, 2001 Fable, 2004 The Movies, 2005 Black & White 2, 2005

74. 74/58 Peter Molyneux on Design “interfaces are paramount” “designing a game in not thinking up a storyline but about what the player does and sees while playing your idea.” “Next time we will do it right” “There’s no democracy in game design, just inspiration” “Idea has to come from one person” “Focus on elements that cannot be seen elsewhere” “Make it like [game X] but better does not work” “writing design documents is stupid” But Fable II’s design document weighs in at 1,000 pages

75. 75/58 Gary Gygax Dungeons & Dragons, 1974 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, 1977 Mythus, 1992 Lejandary Adventures, 1999 Suggested Reading Dear, William C. The Dungeon Master: The Disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III

76. 76/58 Gary Gygax on Design On Games “interesting diversion from everyday life” “chance to excel” “… and if you're playing in good company you don't even mind if you lose because you had the enjoyment of the company during the course of the game” On Dungeons & Dragons Variation on medieval small battles because the guys got tired playing the original “Even when you're playing miniatures, there's still some role-playing aspect”

77. 77/58 Warren Robinett Adventure, 1978 Part was spun-off as superman game… First Easter Egg

78. 78/58 Roberta Williams King’s Quest I, 1984 King’s Quest II, 1985 King’s Quest: Mask of Eternity, 1998

79. 79/58 Janet Jensen Gabriel Knight Series Sins of the Fathers, 1993 The Beast Within, 1999 Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned, 1999

80. 80/58 Steve Jackson Ogre, 1977 Car Wars, 1981 Illuminati, 1983 Toon, 1984 GURPS, 1986 Illuminati: New World Order, 1997 Suggested Reading Schuessler, N. & Jackson, S. Game Design – Volume 1: Theory and Practice, 2005 (1981)

81. 81/58 Steve Jackson on Design “the more factors are explicit […] the less playable [the game] will become” “Don’t just proofread – PLAY” “There is no excuse for failure to playtest a design thoroughly before putting it on the market; it indicates either gross ignorance, total egotism, or an absolute lack of interest in giving the gamer his money’s worth.” After playtesting, do blindtest, “new playtesters are exposed to the game without the benefit of advice from the designer or other experienced players.” After blindtesting, do proof playtesting, “an extra stage of blindtesting and another round of designer playtesting … using only “proof copies” of the finished rules, maps, and charts.”

82. 82/58 Richard Garriott Ultima I: The First Age of Darkness, 1981 Ultima II: The Revenge of the Enchantress, 1982 Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar, 1985 Autoduel, 1985 Ogre, 1986 Ultima VIII: Pagan, 1994 Ultima Online, 1997 City of Heroes, 2004 City of Villians, 2005 Tabula Rasa, 2007 Suggested Reading King, B. & Borland, J. Dungeons and Dreamers: The Rise of Computer Game Culture from Geek to Chic

83. 83/58 Raph Koster LegendMUD Ultima Online, 1997 Star Wars Galaxies, 2003 EverQuest II, 2004 Suggested Reading Koster, R. A Theory of Fun for Game Design, 2004.

84. 84/58 Raph Koster on Design Fun is "the act of mastering a problem mentally” Games are teaching patterns Create a flow experience About UO “players don't care about what you wanted there, about what the dreams were - they only care about what they have in front of them, and then they proceed to do things you never imagined” About SWG “launched too early from a game design point of view” “most systems in there were first-pass at best” “A large chunk of the blame lies with me, for being over- ambitious with the design”

85. 85/58 Greg Costikyan Toon, 1984 Paranoia, 1984 Star Wars: The roleplaying game, 1987 Paranoia XP, 2004 Suggested Reading Costikyan, G. I have no words and I must Design, Interactive Fantasy magazine, 1994.

86. 86/58 Grey Costikyan on Design “Games GROW through innovation. Innovation creates new game styles […] but it’s over now.” “Achieving a goal is meaningless if it comes without work, if there is no opposition” “Whenever multiple players are involved, games are strengthened if they permit, and encourage, diplomacy” “How can you tell a good game from a bad one? The test is still in the playing”

87. 87/58 Ken Rolston Paranoia, 1984 The Lost Island of Castanamir (D&D), 1984 River of Cradles (Runequest), 1992 Paranoia, 5th ed., 1995 Something Rotten in Kislev (WFRP), 1999 Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, 2002 Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, 2006 About retiring “… and play stupid paper-and-pencil RPGs” joined Big Huge Games to do a new RPG

88. 88/58 John Carmack Commander Keen, 1990 Wolfenstein 3D, 1992 Doom, 1993 Quake, 1996 Doom 3, 2005 Suggested Reading Kushner, D. Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture, Random House

89. 89/58 John Romero Scout Search, 1984 Commander Keen, 1990 Wolfenstein 3D, 1992 Doom, 1993 Heretic, 1994 HeXen, 1995 Quake, 1996 Daikatana, 2000 Hyperspace Delivery Boy, 2001 Area 51, 2005 Gauntlet: Seven Sorrows, 2005

90. 90/58 John Romero on Design “We developed our games in a pretty non-disciplined and non-organized way because so much of it was R&D”

91. 91/58 Warren Spector Toon, 1984 Car Wars, Ogre, Illuminati AD&D, DM’s guide, 2nd ed., 1989 GURPs, 3rd ed. 1992 Send in the Clones (Paranoia), 1985 Underword: The Stygian Abuss, 1991 Ultima VII, Part 2, Serpent Isle, 1993 System Shock, 1994 Thief: The Dark Project, 1999 Deus Ex, 2000

92. 92/58 Warren Spector on Design “Learn to program” and “get as broad-based an education as you can” “Become an effective communicator” “Make games” “giving players power to make choices enhanced the gameplay experience” “attaching consequences to those choices made the experience even more powerful” Gargoyle episode Sequals & Adaptations: Get used to it! Safe bets Free marketing Fan buy-in “cool sandboxes to play in”

93. 93/58 Sandy Petersen Call of Cthulhu, 1981 Runequest, 3rd ed., 1985 Ghostbusters: A Frightfully Cheerful Roleplaying Game, 1986 DOOM, 1993 Quake, 1996 Age of Empires: The Age of Kings, 1999 Call of Cthulhu, 2004 Worked on Civilization Sid Meier’s Pirates!

94. 94/58 Sandy Petersen on Design “Be familiar with all types of games, not just computer games”

95. 95/58 Frederick Raynal Alone in the Dark, 1992 Infogrames took over creative control Added Cthulhu mythos Little Big Adventure, 1995 Little Big Adventure 2, 1997

96. 96/58 Gabe Newell & Mike Harrington Half-Life, 1998 Half-Life 2, 2004 Suggested Reading Valve. Half-Life 2 : Raising the Bar

97. 97/58 Mihn Le & Jess Cliffe Counter-Strike, 1999 Counter-Strike: source, 2004

98. 98/58 Bill Roper Warcraft: Orcs and Humans Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos Starcraft Diablo Diablo II

99. 99/58 Bill Roper on Design “You can’t get good at making games unless you make games” “tear apart boardgames to prototype your ideas” “most importantly, never stop playing”

100. 100/58 Richard Garfield RoboRally, 1994 Magic: The Gathering, 1994 The Great Dalmuti, 1995

101. 101/58 Marc LeBlanc Ultima Underworld II, 1993 System Shock, 1994 Thief, 1998 Suggested Reading Online articles on Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics

102. 102/58 Marc LeBlanc on Design “Have a critical eye for games” “Learn to program” “Play lots of games” “Design the game for [millions of people], not for you”

103. 103/58 Dr. Ray Muzyka Baldur’s Gate, 1998 MDK2, 2000 Baldur’s Gate II, 2000 Neverwinter Nights, 2002 Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, 2003 Based upon the roleplaying game (d20 version) Jade Empire, 2005 Neverwinter Nights, 2006

104. 104/58 Dr. Ray Muzyka on Design “Be passionate, but self-critical” “never compromise on quality, but do realize that there is a point of diminishing returns”

105. 105/58 Bruce C. Shelley Railroad Tycoon Civilization Age of Empires

106. 106/58 Bruce C. Shelley on Design “Play a lot of games and analyze them” “Think in terms of entertaining a large audience, not a small one” “it is okay, even encouraged, to borrow from great games, but be different at the vision level and innovative at the gameplay level”

107. 107/58 Starr Long Ultima Online Bioforge Wing Commander: Privateer Ultima Underworld 2

108. 108/58 Starr Long on Design “play every game you possibly can” “then analyze them carefully” “finding inspiration from outside of games is extremely important” “if you are not having fun making your game, then your customers will not have fun playing it”

109. 109/58 Lorne Lanning Oddworld: Abe’s Oddysee Oddworld: Abe’s Exodus Oddworld: Munch’s Oddysee

110. 110/58 Lorne Lanning on Design “The best ideas will not come from areas that have nothing to do with games”

111. 111/58 Scott Miller on Design “Learn from other games and designers, but do not copy them.” “must invent something unique and compelling (one without the other in not enough)”

112. 112/58 Josh Holmes Def Jam Vendetta NBA Street NBA Live ’98, ’99, 2000

113. 113/58 Josh Holmes on Design “Think of the consumer” “Fun first” “whenever you have a choice between realism and fun, go with fun” “Always strive for balance” “Think Big” “Remember Pacing” “Play Bad Games” “Look outside of games”

114. 114/58 Ron Gilbert Maniac Mansion, 1987 The Secret of Monkey Island, 1990

115. 115/58 Swedish Game Designers Dan Glimne Drakborgen Martin Walfisz Ground Control Andreas Roman Midtown Madness 3 (Battlefield: Modern Combat) Mikael Emtinger GTR Tom Söderlund Botfighters

116. 116/58 Leftovers James Ernest (see book page 76-77) Don Daglow (see book page 104-105) Rob Daviau (see book page 232-233) Graeme Bayless (see book page 243-246) Brian Hersch (see book page 276-277) David Perry (see book page 304-305) Richard Hilleman (see book page 324-325) Matt Firor (see book page 332-333) Troy Dunniway (see book page 350-351) Stan Chow (see book page 354-355) Chris Taylor (see book page 377)