1. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Traditional Systems of Herbal Medicine

2. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Definition Medical practice that includes diagnosis, prevention and treatment, relying on practical experience and observations handed down from generation to generation whether verbally or writing.

3. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) It is necessary for pharmacists to know about basic principles of traditional medicine for two reasons: 1- To be in a position to advise patients who may wish to consult an alternative practitioner. 2- Traditional use is a common starting point in the ongoing search for new drugs.

4. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The Diseases in Traditional Systems are Classified into I- Minor or Self-Limiting Disorders Like aches, pain, flatulence, diarrhea, wounds and facilitating childbirth, for which plant or herb can be obtained from a local market and would be well known within the community.

5. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) II- Chronic or Serious Disorders Like cancer and some genetic or metabolic diseases Plant remedies will certainly be used but they may be used as a part of a ritual and treatment will also involve practices such as divination to find out which gods or ancestors have been offended and what sacrifices may be necessary to appease the supernatural entity.

6. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The Dose How How much Traditional Medicine (TM), usually means a lack of specific dose, it is more concerned with How to take the remedy rather than How much So, highly potent plants are rarely part of a traditional medicine pharmacopoeias. e. g. Digitalis purpurea a drug used in treatment of congestive heart failure with narrow therapeutic index of the drug.

7. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004)

8. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Chinese medicine is philosophically based, and as an holistic therapy the concept of balance and harmony is supremely important.

9. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Concepts in TCM Qi, the essential life force: Qi (or Chi) permeates everything. It is transferable. E. g. digestion extracts qi from food and drink and transfers it to the body. Breathing extracts qi from the air and transfers it to the lungs. These two forms of qi meet in the blood and form “human qi”

10. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Qi, the essential life force It is the quality, quantity and balance of qi that determine human’s state of health. Food and air affect health, so diet and breathing exercises are very important. These aspects are considered first before herbs are introduced

11. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Yin and Yang The theory of yin and yang still permeates all aspects of Chinese thought Yin: negative/passive/dark/female/water Yang: positive/active/bright/male/fire

12. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Yin and Yang They are always in balance, where yin becomes weak, yang is strong and vice versa. Both contain the seed of each other: their opposites within themselves.

13. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The Five Elements The earth is divided into wood, fire, earth metal and water. They dominate everything on earth, and each is associated with a vital organ of the body: Heart: fireLiver: wood Spleen: earth Lungs: metal Kidneys: water

14. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The Vital Organs The organs are also considered to be yin and yang and are paired. meridians Meridians Coupled organs are connected by meridians, or energy channels, through which qi flows. Meridians are not associated with the nervous system and can not be seen physically. They are stimulated with herbs and by acupuncture and will have a direct effect on a particular organ as well as a toning effect on the system.

15. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Causes of Disease Bacteria, viruses and chemicals are not considered to be cause. If an organ is weak, it may be attacked and therefore the weakness is the cause and must be rectified. It may be a result of an external forces and internal emotional factors

16. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The external factors “Six Excesses” Wind Cold Summer heat Dampness Dryness Fire Most people, if healthy, not affected by the six excesses but, if the body is deficient in qi or weather conditions are abnormal, then this may cause problems.

17. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The Seven Emotions These are the major internal causes of diseases, these are: Joy Anger Anxiety Concentration Grief Fear Fright Excessive emotional activity causes: 1- yin/yang imbalance 2- blockage of qi in the meridians and impairment of vital organ function 3- damage of the organs and allows disease to enter from outside, or a minor weakness from inside to develop.

18. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) There are a few other causes which are not emotional or external excesses. These are the exception not the rule, and include epidemics, insect and animal bites, worm infestation and hereditary diseases.

19. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Diagnosis Examination of the tongue Pulse diagnosis Palpitation of internal organs Massage Interviewing: questions are asked about sleep patterns, stool and urine quality, fever, etc...

20. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Treatment The purpose is to rectify harmony, restore qi and the yin/yang balance. Example: “cold” disease, such as cold in lung, coughs, vomiting are considered to be a deficiency of yang and treatment would be with a warming herb such as ginger.

21. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Some Important Herbs in TCM and Their Uses Latin nameEnglish nameNatureMedicinal use Cinnamomum cassia Chinese cinnamon Pungent, sweet, very hot, yang Diarrhoea, tonic, dysmenorrhoea Ephedra sinicaEphedraPungent, slightly bitter, warm, yang Bronchial asthma, hayfever Panax ginsengGinsengSweet, neutralTonic, aphrodisiac, appetite stimulant Rheum palmatum RhubarbBitter, cold, yinConstipation, burns, diarrhoea, jaundice Zingiber officinale GingerPungent, sweet, very hot, yang Nausea, vomiting, colds, diarrhoea

22. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004)

23. Ayurveda is a system of sacred Hindu medicine, originating in India. It is the most ancient system of medicine still in use today. Ayurveda is considered to be the most ancient of all medical disciplines. In Ayurvedic medicine, the patient is viewed as unique, and ‘normality’ as what is appropriate for that particular person. This is in contrast to Western medicine, where populations are generalized and ‘normal’ means what is applicable to the majority.

24. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Philosophically, Ayurveda has similarities with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): 1- Parana, the life energy is equivalent to qi. 2- In TCM, there are two (yin and yang), and in Ayurveda there are three (the tridosha). 3- There are five elements in both, but they are slightly different. 4- Many remedies are common to both systems although the philosophical rationale for their application may be a little different

25. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Concepts in Ayurveda Prana, the life energy: Prana is the vital energy, activating both body and mind. Nutrient prana from the air gives energy to the vital prana in the brain, via respiration, and is thus the equivalent of qi in TCM. In the body it is seated in the head, and governs emotions, memory and other functions of the mind. Prana kindles the bodily fire, governs the functioning of the heart, entering the bloodstream from where it controls the vital organs.

26. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Bhutas, the five elements The basic elements of cosmic energy are: Ether (Space) Air Fire Water Earth The five elements are related to the five senses: hearing, touch, vision, taste & smell. e.g.:Ether is related to hearing, since sound is transmitted through it, and from there to the ear, the associated sense organ, leading to speech, from the organs of action which are the tongue and vocal cords.

27. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Tridosha Vata, Pitta & Kapha (the Three Humors) The five elements are manifest in the human body as three basic principles or humors known as the Tridosha. The three humors (Vata, Pitta, Kapha) govern all biological, psychological and physiopathological functions of the body and mind. The primary requirement for diagnosis and treatment of disease is to understand the relationship between the humors.

28. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) When the tridosha works in harmony and functions in a balanced manner, the result is health and a feeling of well-being in the individual. However, in cases of imbalance and disharmony, the result is illness or disease. The tridosha is responsible for psychological phenomena, including basic human emotions such as fear, anger and greed, and more complicated sentiments such as understanding, compassion and love, and as such is the foundation of the psychosomatic nature of man.

29. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) The tridosha has recently been redefined as an equilibrium, balance and coordination between the three vital body systems:  Central nervous system (CNS)  vata  Endocrine system  pitta  Immune axis  kapha The tridosha can be considered to govern all metabolic activities:  Catabolism  vata  Metabolism  pitta  Anabolism  kapha

30. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) For example: When vata is out of balance, the metabolism will be disturbed, resulting in excess catabolism, which is the breakdown or deterioration process in the body; excess would therefore induce emaciation. When anabolism is greater than catabolism (excess kapha), there is an increased rate of growth and repair of organs and tissues.

31. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Diagnosis Taking the case history involves astrological considerations. Examination, where the appearance of the tongue, properties of the urine, sweat and sputum will also be examined.

32. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Treatment Treatment may involves: Diets Bloodletting Fasting Skin applications Enemas Yogic breathing Herbal treatments Minerals

33. Reference: Heinrich, M.; et al: Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytopharmacy, (2004) Examples of Herbs of Ayurveda and Their Uses Botanical nameEnglish nameEffect on doshaMedical use Nigella sativaBlack cuminPacifies vata and kapha Digestive, antiseptic Ocimum sanctum Holy basilPacifies kapha and vata Expectorant, febrifuge, immunomodulator Piper nigrumBlack pepperPacifies vata and pitta Digestive, respiratory disorders