1. An Introduction to the Stigmatization Process Anthropology 393 – Cultural Construction of HIV/AIDS Josephine MacIntosh

2. Important Definitions  Prejudice: Attitudes which inform cognitive representations (stereotypes) of other individuals or groups based on their social position (Biernat & Dovidio, 2000)  Stereotypes: Oversimplified cognitive conceptions or beliefs about individuals who belong to a particular social group or category. Rigid ‘caricaturizations’, often with little basis in reality (Dovidio, Major & Crocker, 2000)

3. Important Definitions  Stigma : Characteristic(s) that ostracizes a person from ‘normal’ society and decrease life chances (Link & Phelan, 2001)  Discrimination : Actions by others that further reduce life chances by limiting access to jobs, education, earnings, housing, healthcare, etc (Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 1999)  HIV stigma and discrimination : Attaches itself to pre-existing stigmas, to racial stereotypes, or to stigma against sexual minorities (Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 1999)

4. Goffman’s 3 Types of Stigma  Abominations of the body: physical disfigurement, readily apparent, known at first glance  Blemishes of individual character: inferred from known records (e.g:, history of mental illness or incarceration), or experience, may be less apparent  Tribal stigma of race, nation and religion: hereditary stigmas have the unique potential to discredit entire families, may also be less visible (Goffman, 1963)

5. Social Identity  Social identity (rather than social status) includes personal characteristics (such as honesty) as well as social attributes (such as occupation)  Virtual social identity: based on assumptions  Actual social identity: based on experience  Congruence  normal social interactions  Incongruence  disrupted social interactions (Goffman, 1963)

6. Dimensions of Stigma  Concealability: Obvious or hidden?  Course: Acute? Chronic? Fatal?  Disruptiveness: Interaction uncertain?  Aesthetic qualities: Fear? Disgust?  Origin: Guilty? Innocent? Defenseless?  Peril: Contagious? Highly infectious? (Jones et al., 1984; Goffman, 1963)

7. Origins of Stigma “Stigma develops out of an initial, universally held motivation to avoid danger, followed by an (often exaggerated) perception of characteristics that promote threat, accompanied by a social sharing of these perceptions with others. Moreover… stigmas exist primarily in the minds of stigmatizers and stigmatized individuals as cultural social constructions…” (Stangor & Crandall, 2000:62-3)

8. Stereotypes and Prejudices  Functional theories: for personal benefit  Cognitive economy, self-enhancement, to protect self from harm  Describe initial impetus for stigma, but not stigma categories  Perceptual: direct observation + cognitive distortion  Belief creation  Illusory correlations between erroneously paired unique experiences  Unusual associated with negative  Accentuation  Differences exaggerated thru cognitive biases

9. Stereotypes and Prejudices  Consensual: to explain conformity among beliefs  Social exchange  Communication  no need for direct experience or cognitive simplicity  How socially acceptable is it to hold negative attitudes?  Repetition of cultural norms  Reflect conformity not individual personality constructs  does not fully explain the origins of stigma

10. A Biocultural Framework  Highly interdependent, cooperative groups had an evolutionary advantage  Forming and maintaining functional groups (generally kinships) became a primary human survival strategy  The functionality of a given group depended on sharing, cooperation, mutual investment, and trust  Reciprocal prosocial behaviour would enhance chances for survival (Neuberg, Smith & Asher, 2000)

11. A Biocultural Framework  Reciprocal, prosocial behaviour would become normative within groups  Physical or behavioural characteristics that violate groups standards are seen as a threat  Disability Vs. deliberate exploitation of others for personal gain  Non-reciprocation based on disability generally less stigmatizing than purposive disregard for group norms

12. A Biocultural Framework  Groups are built on a foundation of trust  Breeches of trust are perceived as threats  Liars, cheaters, thieves, traitors = significant threat to grp function  Groups thrive when members adhere to social rules and scripts that allow coordinated social action and interaction  Unpredictable and incompetent are stigmatized  Survival of group requires reproductive fitness  Those exhibiting genetic weakness, behaviours which threaten reproduction, or symptoms of contagious disease are stigmatized

13. A Biocultural Framework  In-groups Vs. Out-groups  Difference in quality of interactions  In-groups: characterized by cooperation, evolutionary advantage benefits all groups members  Out-groups: compete with one another, evolutionary advantage goes to one groups or the other  Threat from competing groups sets in motion the mechanisms of stigmatization  Based on group membership rather that individual behaviours and characteristics

14. A Biocultural Framework Summary  Continuance of group depends on trust, sharing, cooperation and mutual investment  Functionality and reproductive fitness depends on conformity to social norms  Deviation from group norms perceived as threat

15. Implications for HIV/AIDS  HIV is:  Concealable, fatal, socially disruptive, elicits fear and disgust of the guilty, is seen as perilous  Seen as bad for ‘the group’  Is behaviour that is ‘adaptive’ or ‘natural’ from evolutionary standpoint right or justifiable in contemporary society?  Especially if we have ways to reduce contact, reduce infectivity and possibly reduce susceptibility?