1. Parties and Leaders in Congress GOV E-1351

2. Congress Self-organized Collective action problems Electoral motivations always present Trustee/delegate dilemma Uncertainty about match between policy instruments and policy outcomes Intercameral, interbranch bargaining

3. The History of Parties in Congress 1789-1823 (Cs. 1-17) –Federalists vs. Republicans 1824-1837 (Cs. 18-24) –Multifactionalism (all ``Republican'') 1837-1857 (Cs. 25-34) –Whigs vs. Democrats 1857-present (Cs. 35-110) –Republicans vs. Democrats

4. First Period (1789-1823) Federalists (Hamiltonians) were pro- development, Republicans (Jeffersonians) pro-states rights Republicans end up winning after Election of 1800, leading to the ``Era of Good Feelings''

5. Second Period: 1824-1837 Republicans divided into factions –Evident in election of 1824 –(John Quincy Adams, William Crawford & Andrew Jackson)

6. Election of 1824 CandidatePartyElectoral Vote Popular Vote J.Q. Adams (MA) (Winner) Democrat- Republican 84115,696 Henry Clay (KY) Democrat- Republican 3747,136 A. Jackson (TN) Democrat- Republican 99152,933 William Crawford (GA) Democrat- Republican 4146,979

7. Third Period: 1837-1857 Whigs and Democrats transcend regional loyalties Regional split (i.e., mostly slavery) leads to tensions: evident in 3 rd parties

8. 3 rd Parties in Congress Anti-Masonic: 1829-1841 (NY, PA –Antielitist Nullifier: 1831-1839 (SC) –States’ rights Unionist: 1861-1865 (South) –Antisecession American (Know-Nothing): 1845-61 (USA) –Anti-immigrant National (Greenback): 1879-89 (South, Midwest) –Currency Reform (pro-inflation) People’s (Populist): 1891-1903 (Prairie) –Agrarian Reform Progressive: 1913-1919 (Midwest, West) –Political Reform Farmer-Labor: 1925-1945 (MN) –Economic Reform

9. 4 th Period: 1857-Present Republicans and Democrats have flipped on some issues (e.g., civil rights) House and Senate start to be organized in recognizable ways from 1865 on, particularly as the 20 th Century begins Progressive movement important in jump- starting the 20 th Century developments

10. 65 th Congress (1917-1919) Progressives hold pivotal seats, Dems have 215, Reps have 214 Democrats garner small parties’ members support for Speaker vote, bargain leads to women’s suffrage, prohibition, direct election of Senate (17 th -19 th Amendments)

11. Why Only 2? (Mostly) Single-member districts in House, effectively single-member in Senate, clearly single-member in Presidency. Duverger’s Law: Single-member districts leads to 2-party competition in each district Canada, UK: localized Duverger. US: nationalized (via Presidency) Exception: India

12. Two “Powers of Party” Perks: jobs, legislative resources, committee assignments, campaign finance, etc. Process: legislative agenda, selection of roll call votes, conference committees

13. Perks Committees: assignments allocated by parties. Majority party overrepresented, and more so in the House. Leadership: committee chairs are always from the majority party. Committee (and subcommittee) chairs have special prerogatives Access to campaign finance resources

14. Process Rules: Rules committee in House heavily weighted in favor of majority party Recognition: majority leader of Senate has right of first recognition, Rules committee is privileged in House –Minority leader also has prerogatives in both chambers Both chambers “police themselves”

15. Party Leadership: House Speaker (1) Floor leaders (2) Whips (2, w/ Deputies, some secret) Caucus (2: each hierarchical) Policy Committee (2: “pure committee”) Committee on Committees (2) Campaign Committees (2)

16. Party Leadership: Senate President (1: Vice-President of USA) President pro tempore (1: majority party) Floor leaders (2) Whips (2, w/ Deputies, some secret) Caucus (2: each hierarchical) Policy Committee (2: “pure committee”) Committee on Committees (2) Campaign Committees (2)

17. Party Activity Information, attendance: whip system Bargaining –Intercameral: Conference committee (Speaker & Majority Leader of Senate) –Intracameral: Party caucuses (only majority party in House), Whip system Agenda setting, legislative process –Rules Committee in House, –Majority Leader in Senate (UCAs)

18. Leadership, Compromise & Direction “Boston-Austin” (Dems: 1940s-1980s) –House Compromise –Starts to break down in early 1970s –Civil rights/realignment Main Street-Wall Street partnership –Senate: Midwest and CA/East coast split –Starts to fail because of southern Republicans

19. Parties in Action “Party Unity” on voting –Declines from 1880s through to 1970s –Back on the upswing –Problems with this measure Party or Ideology? Polarization? Party pressure only on close votes? –1900: 73%, 1970s-1980s: 35%, 1990s: 60%

20. Agenda Control Voting only occurs with majority assent “Gatekeeping” or Negative Agenda Control Roll Rates: majority of party votes on losing side of a roll call vote –Majority rate always low since reconstruction –Minority rates: High: Reconstruction->World War I Medium: World War I->World War II Low (but varying): World War II->Present

21. Conclusions Hierachical organizations help solve collective action problems Electoral incentives “Influence of party” a slippery concept Perks and process basis of any “power of party” in Congress Duverger’s Law – 2 party competition

22. Benefits of Parties Coordination Incentives for effort (committees, campaign finance) Electoral signaling (issue ownership, low- cost cue for voters) Conditional Party Government Hypothesis –Party caucus can attempt to “bind itself” in the face of temptation to vote against long-term interests