1. Monetary Policy and Inflation
Chapter 29 & 30

2. Monetary Policy

3. Channel of Monetary Policy
When the central bank increases the monetary base, the money supply will increase.
Banks have excess liquidity which they use to make more loans.
The supply of liquidity will exceed demand and banks must compete to attract borrowers who will hold this liquidity only at a lower interest rate.

4. Dynamics of Monetary Transmission
Money supply expansion reduces interest rates
Lower interest rates implies an increase in borrowing and affects demand for interest sensitive goods.
Lower interest rates increase demand for US$ in forex market depreciating the exchange rate.
Aggregate demand shifts out. Given fixed input prices this increase in demand stimulates output.

5. Monetary Transmission Mechanism
ECB Web Site

6. Monetary Policy: Money Supply Expands1
i**
Money Demand 2 M

7. Expansionary Monetary Policy
ΔC, ΔNX
AD′ AD Y

8. An Expansionary Cycle Driven by monetary policy
Economy at LT YP.
Monetary Policy Cuts Interest Rate
Investment rises. The AD curve shifts out.
Tight labor markets. SRAS returns to long run equilibrium YP P 3
SRAS 2 P* 1
AD′ AD Y
Output Gap

9. Monetary Policy – Short-term vs. Long Term
In the short-run, expansionary monetary policy can boost economic growth.
But in the long-run, expansionary monetary policy only leads to rising prices (i.e. inflation).

10. Interest Rate Management
In most economies around the world, the central bank does not simply act to maintain a fixed money supply.
Rather, they adjust money supply to maintain and manage interest rate changes in response to business cycle conditions.

11. Monetary Policy
In the US (and Euroland and Japan and most OECD economies), the central bank sets monetary policy by picking a short-run interest rate they would like to prevail.
In HK, the central bank sets monetary policy by picking a fixed exchange rate.

12. U.S. Central bank cuts interest rates during recessions

13. Demand Driven Recession w/ Counter-cyclical monetary policy
Economy in a recession. Fed detects deflationary pressure
Monetary Policy Cuts Interest Rate
Investment increases spending to shift the AD curve back to long run equilibrium YP P
SRAS
AD′ 1 3 P* 2 AD Y
Gap < 0

14. Demand Driven Expansion w/ Counter-cyclical monetary policy
Economy in expansion. Fed detects inflationary pressure
Monetary Policy Raises Interest Rate
Investment decreases spending to shift the AD curve back to long run equilibrium YP P
SRAS 2 P* 1
AD′ 3 AD Y
Gap > 0

15. Price Stability
Counter-cyclical monetary policy stabilizes output near potential output, YP, but also stabilizes the price level near P*.
Central banks may pursue price stability as a goal and also stabilize output as well if business cycles are caused by demand shocks.

16. Policy Framework Price Stability
Fed Objective Humphrey Hawkins Act (1978): Fed instructed by Congress to be “conducting the nation's monetary policy .. in pursuit of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates “
ECB Objective “The primary objective of the ECB’s monetary policy is to maintain price stability. The ECB aims at inflation rates of below, but close to, 2% over the medium term.”
Japan Objective: Bank of Japan Act Article 2 Currency and monetary control by the Bank of Japan shall be aimed at achieving price stability, thereby contributing to the sound development of the national economy

17. The Great Moderation
The Great Moderation by Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas

18. Taylor Rule
Economist named John Taylor argues that US target interest rate is well represented by a function of
current inflation
Inflation GAP: current inflation vs. target inflation
Output Gap: % deviation of GDP from long run path
Function: Inflation Target π* = .02

19. The Taylor Rule Download

20. What should be the current Fed Funds rate
What should be the current Fed Funds rate? Will they be increasing it soon?
Step 1. Find Inflation Rate
Step 2. Find Output Gap
Step 3. Calculate Taylor Rule implied rate and compare with current rate.

21. Answer

22. Stagflation w/ Counter-cyclical monetary policy
Economy experiences stagflation
Monetary Policy Cuts Interest Rate
Investment increases spending to shift the AD curve to long run equilibrium with higher prices. YP P
SRAS 3
P** 2 P*
AD′ 1 AD Y

23. Stagflation w/ Price Stabiliztion
Economy experiences stagflation
Monetary Policy Raises Interest Rate
Investment decreases spending to shift the AD curve to equilibrium with lower output. YP P
SRAS 2 3 P* 1 AD
AD′ Y

24. Monetary Policy and Supply Shocks
In the face of demand shocks, no trade-off between price and output stability.
In the face of supply shocks, such a trade-off exists.

25. Question: Problem with Central Bank Stabilization
Situation: Economy is in long-run equilibrium, but central bank overestimates potential output.
Draw outcome if central bank believes that the potential output is higher than it is.

26. A Bias toward Expansionary monetary policy
Central Bank repeatedly expands the money supply
Inflation recurs YP P 5 4 P* 3 2
SRAS′
AD′ 1
SRAS AD Y
YPhantom

27. Monetary Policy Lags
Counter-cyclical fiscal policy beset by lags between the time a recession is recognized and the time the government can form consensus to act.
Monetary policy beset by lags between the time policy shifts and time for private sector to respond to lower interest rates.

28. Inflation

29. Moneyt * Velocity = Pt * Yt
Quantity Theory
Simplest monetary theory is the Quantity Theory of Money.
Purchasing power of money is equal to the quantity of money (Mt) times the speed of circulation (V, # of transactions)
Purchasing power means # of goods (Yt) multiplied by price per good (Pt)
Moneyt * Velocity = Pt * Yt

30. Rule of Thumb
Rule of Thumb The growth rate of product is approximately equal to the sum of the growth rates of the elements of a product.

31. Money and Inflation Assuming stable velocity
Inflation occurs when money growth speeds ahead of output growth. The unbounded creation of fiat money leads to inflation which ultimately will make the money worthless.

32. Money & Inflation:

33. Ex Ante Rate and the Fisher Effect
Savings and investment decisions must be made before future inflation is known so they must be made on the basis of an ex ante (predicted) real interest rate.
Fisher Hypothesis: Ex ante real interest rate is determined by forces in the financial market. Money interest rate is just the real ex ante rate plus the market’s consensus forecast of inflation.

34. Great Inflation of the 1970’s
Source: St. Louis Federal Reserve
Great Inflation Download

35. Fisher Effect: OECD Economies Great Inflation of 1970’s

36. Loanable Funds Market Fisher Effect
LF* LF

37. Ex Ante vs. Ex post
We can also examine the ex post real return on a loan as the money interest rate less the actual outcome for inflation.
The gap between actual and forecast inflation determines the gap between the ex post (actual) and ex ante (forecast) return.

38. Unexpected Inflation Winners and Losers
Higher than expected inflation means ex post real rates are lower than ex ante. Borrowers are winners/lenders are losers.
Lower than expected inflation means ex post real rates are higher than ex ante. Lenders are winners/borrowers are losers.

39. Inflation Risk
When inflation is variable, lenders will demand some premium for inflation risk. This will put cost on borrowers.
High inflation rates tend to be associated with unpredictable inflation.

40. Costs of Anticipated Inflation
Shoe Leather Costs – Money is a technology for engaging in transactions. The greater is inflation, the greater the cost for individuals of holding money. Individuals must make efforts as a substitute for the convenience of holding money.
Menu Costs – Firms must engage in costs of changing posted prices. More generally, when prices change rapidly over time, more time and effort must be put into calculating relative prices.

41. The Inflation Tax Banknotes do not pay interest.
The real interest rate on banknotes is
If inflation is high, currency has sharply negative returns. People will avoid holding money leading to society losing the convenience of money transactions.
Zimbabwe Inflation Download

42. Causes of Extremely Rapid Inflation
Government generates revenues by printing new money (referred to as seignorage).
Government facing borrowing constraints may be forced to rely on inflation tax for deficit financing and real returns to owning money.
Explain the link between deficits and inflation.

43. Israel

44. Israel

45. A Bias toward Expansionary monetary policy
Central Bank repeatedly expands the money supply
Inflation recurs
After a time, as inflation becomes expected it will cease to impact output even in the short run. YP P 5 4 3 P* 2
SRAS′ 1
AD′
SRAS AD Y
Inflationary Gap

46. Features of Inflation Targeting A medium term communication strategy
Commitment to price stability as goal of monetary policy.
Clear statement of numerical target for inflation over the medium (1-2 year) term.
Communication with public about current forecasts of inflation and policy actions used to achieve target.
Central Bankers accountable for achieving goals.

47. Yield Curve
The yield curve is the gap between the interest rate on long-term bonds and short-term bonds.
When long-term interest rates are high relative to the short-term interest rates, the yield curve is steep.
When short-term interest rates are relatively high, the yield curve is flat or inverted.

48. Monetary Policy and the Yield Curve
Central bank expands the money supply and short-term interest rate will fall.
Negative effect on long term real interest rate but…
Also likely to increase inflationary expectations raising nominal long-term interest rates.
Yield Curve steepens when money supply expands and flattens when money supply contracts.
Yield Curve Download

49. US Yield Curve September 2007: Expansionary Monetary Policy

50. Learning Outcome
Calculate the impact of inflation on long-term nominal interest rates using the theory of the Fisher effect.
Calculate real return on debt as a function of inflation and expected inflation.
Calculate real return on money as a function of inflation.