1. Identifying Different Types of Research (Paradigms) Intended Use, Treatment of Time & Units of Measurement

2. Ways of using literature reviews to develop ideas for topics Literature review = Survey of research done on your topic replicate a project (exactly or with variations) previous research may inspire you (Baxter & Babbie, p. 20), for example : –explore unexpected findings –follow suggestions for further research –extend explanation or theory to new topic or setting or context –challenge findings-- try to refute conclusions –look for new variables, relationships not treated in literature

3. Note incomplete literature coverage : “Lost Science in the Third World”--- Scientific American (1995) Vol 277, No. 7.

4. Recall: Research Paradigms Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community about what constitutes worthwhile research (Thomas Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions) –What problems are worth investigating? –What constitutes an answer? Different views on how approaches are grouped

5. Developing research topics

6. Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches (common about 20-30 yrs ago but still used) Neuman (2000: 16) Quantitative vs. Qualitative ObjectiveSubjective Variables Processes and events Reliability Authenticity Value-Free Explicitly Stated Values Independent of ContextAware of Context Many cases or subjects Few cases or subjects Statistical Analysis Other qualities Detached ResearcherInvolved Researcher

7. Another idea: Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan) radical humanist radical structuralist interpretive functionalist Conflict/radical change Order/stability/regulation subjective objective

8. “Dimensions” of Research Neuman (2000: 37) Purpose of Study Intended Use of StudyUse of Study Treatment of Time in StudyTime in Study Data Collection Technique ( examples of common types associated with approaches) Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory Basic Applied -Action -Impact -Need Assessment-Need Assessment Evaluation Cross-sectional Longitudinal -Panel -Time series -Cohort -Case StudyCase Study -Trend study Quantitative (survey, content analysis, existing statistics, experiment) Qualitative (field research, historical comparative, etc.)

9. Exploratory Research When not much is known about topic Surprises (e.g. Serendipity effect) Familiarity with basic concerns and develop a picture To explore feasibility of additional research To develop questions

10. Descriptive Research Focuses on “who”, “what” and “how” Background information, to stimulate new ways of thinking, to classify types, etc.

11. Explanatory Research To test theories, predictions, etc… Idea of “advancing” knowledge

12. Intended Uses of Study Basic or fundamental research –Depends on paradigm –Inner logic & relation to theoretical or methodological issues in field –Concerns scholarly community Applied research (practical applications) –action research (We can make a difference) –evaluation research (Did it work?) Methods: formative (built in) summative (final outcomes) Research goals –needs assessment (Who needs what?) –cost-benefit analysis (What is it worth?) –social impact assessment (What will be the effects?)

13. Treatment of Time  Cross-sectional (one point in time)  Longitudinal (more than one point in time)

14. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies Panel study –Example: same people, at least twice 1990200040-4950-5960-69 70-79 80+ Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

15. Cohort analysis –same category of people (but not exactly same individuals) at at least two times or over a period –Not necessarily age cohorts, can be groups of people, (ex. class of 2007) –Term usually used for people but principles can also apply to non-humans: ex. implementation of homeland security policies 9/11 2 years and 5 years after, etc… Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

16. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) Time-series –same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same age groups 1990200041-5051-6061-7071-80 Source: Babbie (1995: 99) Back to tableTo next slide

17. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) Time-series (other examples) –same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same place 1985 2000Capital Hill residents

18. Lexis Diagram: longitudinal Source: http://demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality/lexis.html (May 15, 2000) Duration (in years) 1970 5 10 15 20 75808590 Year (Date)

19. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) Duration (in years) 20 15 10 5 197075808590 Year (Date) Source: http://demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality/lexis.html (May 15, 2000) –Cross-Sectional Study (Lexis diagram)

20. Case Studies Both cross-sectional and longitudinal types, but often over duration of time

21. Units of Analysis (Individual)

22. Units of Analysis (Families)

23. Units of analysis: ( Households)

24. Artifacts as “Units” of Analysis Non-human elements (like technologies) as subjects (Actor-Network Theory) in communication studies –Communications media (radio, television, mobile phones etc…) –Media Messages & Uses

25. Importance of Choosing Appropriate Unit of Analysis example: Ecological Fallacy (cheating)

26. Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

28. Ecological Fallacy & Reductionism ecological fallacy--wrong unit of analysis (too high) reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)

29. The Research Wheel Choose Topic Focus Research Question Design Study Collect Data Analyze Data Interpret Data Inform Others The “Research Wheel” Source: Neuman (1995: 12) Steps in the research process

30. Babbie (1995: 101) The Research Process