1. Handbook of Language & Ethnic Identity Chapter 18: The Celtic World Colin H. Williams

2. The Ethnic Revival Celtic languages are spoken by minorities in Brittany, Cornwall, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Scotland, Wales But the speakers do not feel that they are ethnically distinct

3. Where does the revival come from? Ethnic continuity -- a global resurgence of ethnic regional awareness is challenging group membership based on social class Salience of ethnicity -- a reaction against the increasing scale of human organization especially by those caught in the margins Internal colonial -- uneven development of capitalism has disadvantaged ethnically marginal peoples Ethnic intelligentsia -- hope to renegotiate their ethnic region’s relationship with international community

4. Different relationships to language and ethnicity Cornwall, Scottish Gaeldom, Ireland -- it is entirely possible to assert an ethnic identity without fluency in the language Brittany and Wales -- the knowledge of the language is crucial to the cultural identity Either way, Celtic revivalists have focused on language and linguistics

5. Beyond the local European interdependence and globalization give minorities recourse to larger authorities to promote broadcasting and education in their languages Erosion of traditional communication networks and homelands -- these processes are decoupling culture from territory Threatened cultures become institutionalized in spheres of education, public administration, and the legal system

6. Economy and Language Support of sustainable indigenous economic activity will also support and encourage language maintenance within the community

7. Ireland before Ethnic Revival 6th-8th cents -- Ireland was European center of religious and secular learning Ireland was Irish-speaking until 16th cent English landlord class arrives in Ireland 1801 Ireland united to British state 1845-49 Irish devastated by potato famine Irish speaking population declines to 18% in 1911 Gradual revival of language over last century

8. Contemporary Ireland Number of people who claim a knowledge of Irish is increasing, use as a community language is decreasing Public support is there, and Irish is supported in public arena, teachers and civil servants are required to know Irish However, Irish is failing as a community language, and educational system fails to produce bilinguals

9. Quote to contemplate: “For so long Irish was the symbol of resistance to an occupying force. Having achieved independence, the language of dissent was not adopted as the language of responsible citizenship, a sobering thought indeed for all engaged in language revitalization efforts.”

10. Scotland Only 1.4% are Gaelic speakers, mostly concentrated in Western Isles and Skye and Lochalsh District, so this is not a strong political issue Historical discrimination & emigration have devastated Gaelic, along with “crofting”, an indigenous system of landholding Most Scots do not see Gaelic as a marker of identity

11. Plans for Gaelic in Scotland Scotland has been economically successful and there is some desire to develop tourism, and Gaelic is viewed as an asset, so there is some investment into Gaelic broadcasting and cultural and business uses of Gaelic It is possible that Gaelic will grow again…

12. Wales 1282 Wales conquered 1542 Wales incorporated into England, Welsh excluded from public life, all transactions only in English 1588 Welsh translation of Bible despite ban 19 th c huge population growth and economic boom – Welsh did not have to emigrate to survive (unlike Scots and Irish)

13. Wales, cont’d. 1870 & 1889 Acts of government encouraged abandonment of Welsh for English and Welsh withered Early 20 th c Welsh elite fought for rejuvenation, established university, library, and other supporting institutions Modern Welsh identity more linked to language than identity of any other Celtic group, many cultural uses in public arena

14. Contemporary Wales Today most Welsh accept bilingualism as the norm Welsh seems to be declining, but there is also growth among younger age groups 1993 Welsh Language Act & Welsh Language Board provide govt support, but there is still a problem with out-migration from Welsh-speaking areas

15. Contemporary Wales, contd. Bilingual education programs: –Encourage sense of national pride –Are of higher quality than others –Provide Welsh, which is seen as an economically advantageous second language 1982 Welsh TV programming and also many youth activities available in Welsh

16. Contemporary Wales, contd. Overall Wales is becoming more and more bilingual, but the traditional predominantly Welsh-speaking communities are in decline

17. Developments in Welsh Language Policy Welsh Language Board promotes bilingualism in public sector and in the workplace Heavy industry is dying out and needs to be replaced with diverse economic strategies in the Welsh heartland

18. Community Fragmentation and Linguistic Regeneration Can language planning and intervention save the Celtic languages? Will new communication technologies overcome the challenges to traditional heartlands? Will anybody ever use them for private purposes not sponsored by govt?