1. THE GROWING SIGNIFICANCE OF DIASPORAS: AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE by Graeme Hugo University Professorial Research Fellow Professor of Geography and Director of the National Centre for Social Applications of GIS, The University of Adelaide Presentation to Fifth Diversity Matters Forum, Monash University Campus, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 19-20 November 2008

2. Outline of Presentation Introduction Defining Diaspora Transnationalism, International Migration and Development Australia’s Diaspora Diasporas in Australia Some Implications for Policy Conclusion

3. Defining Diaspora Diaspora has its origins in the Greek word ‘to colonise’ and until relatively recently it has been used to refer largely to a group of people who are linked by common ethno- linguistic and/or religious bonds who have left their homeland, usually under some form of coercion, and who have developed a strong identity and mutual solidarity in exile.

4. The Jewish diaspora has been the classic example (Cohen 1997). In the contemporary context, with the acceleration in international mobility, the term has been used more broadly to encompass expatriate populations who are living outside of their home countries and retain linkages with their origin countries (Safran 1991; Vertovec 1997).

5. Distinctions in Diaspora Studies (Reis, 2004) Reis (2004, 46) distinguishes between two groups of diaspora theorists: on the one hand are those who focus on ‘classical’ diaspora based on the Jewish archetype, while, on the other, are those who co-mingle contemporary diasporas with issues of transnationalism and globalisation. It is the latter, wider conceptualisation which is of particular relevance to contemporary discussion of the impacts of emigration on development in origin countries.

6. A distinction also has been made in studies of diaspora ‘between a symbolic ethnic identity of ‘being’ and a more active ‘diaspora identity’ requiring involvement’ (Butler 2001, 191-93) with the latter implying active participation in activity in the homeland.

7. Butler (2001) has built on the work of Safran (1991) to advance a number of criteria which he considers characterise contemporary diaspora. He argues that it is not necessary for communities of expatriates to fulfil all of the criteria but implies that they should meet most of them. They include: Expatriates should be spread over more than one destination. They should retain a relationship with their real or imagined homeland. There should be an awareness of group identity. The diaspora should exist beyond the first generation.

8. Paradigm Shift in International Migration Research Permanent Settlement Transnationalism Assimilation and Transnational Ties Between Integration Within Destination ‘Origin’ and ‘Destination’ Nation State Focus on Immigration Focus on Both Emigration and Destination and Immigration, Origin and Destination and Linkages Between Them

9. What is the National Population? Diagrammatic Representation of a National Population

10. Measuring the Diaspora Stocks – Problem from nation state perspective because by definition they are absent when the population census is taken Flows – Bias in international migration data toward immigration and against emigration, few countries collect the latter Potential for producing synthetic censuses of emigrants using several destination country censuses

11. Migration and Development Shift in discourse from a focus on ‘brain drain’ to an increasing consideration of the positive effects of emigration through: Remittances Encouragement of FDI Return – permanent, temporary and virtual Knowledge transfer Trade The crucial role of the diaspora.

12. The Australian Diaspora Approximately one million people Selective of young adults Highly skilled and educated High level of return

13. Australia: Permanent Arrivals and Departures, 1959-60 to 2006-07 Source: DIMIA Australian Immigration: Consolidated Statistics and DIAC Immigration Update, various issues

14. Permanent Departures from Australia, 1993-94 to 2006-07 Source: DIAC

15. Australia: Percent Permanent and Long Term Arrivals and Departures by Occupation, 1997-98 to 2007-08 Source: DIAC unpublished data

16. Australia: Age-Sex Structure of Permanent Departures of the Australia-born, Permanent Arrivals and Australian Residents Long Term Departures, 2007-08 Source: DIAC unpublished data Permanent Departures Australia- born Settler Arrivals Residents Long Term Departures

17. Australia: Long-Term Arrivals and Departures of Australian Residents by Age, 2004-07 Source: DIAC, unpublished data

18. Survey of Australian Expatriates: Intentions to Return to Australia Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 50; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

19. Survey of Australian Expatriates: Reasons Given for Leaving Australia (Percent) Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 44; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

20. Survey of Australian Expatriates: Reasons Given by Respondents for Intending to Return to Australia Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

21. Survey of Australian Expatriates: Proportion That Still Call Australia Home (Percent) Source: Hugo, Rudd and Harris, 2003, 46; One Million More Survey, Parker, forthcoming

22. Ways in Which Respondents Keep in Touch With What is Happening in Australia While Away, 2006 Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)

23. Australian Expatriates: Frequency of Visiting Australia 2006 Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)

24. Australian Expatriates: Responses to Statements Relating to Contribution to Australia, 2006 Source: One Million More Survey (n=8,879)

25. Australians Living Overseas: Frequency of Contact with Australia, 2006 Source: One Million More Survey (n=9,529)

26. ‘It has really been since I have lived overseas that I have been more acutely aware of my sense of being Australian’. Awareness of Group Identity

27. Identity as an Expatriate Development of formal and informal expatriate groups - originally single country eg Indonesia - also often partly business - increasingly web based and international Emergence of an Australian expatriate culture

28. ‘I have my husband and family now here in the USA but all the rest of my immediate family are in Australia – it will always be 'home' but I also have a home here. I will never give up my Australian citizenship.’ ‘Being born raised and educated in Australia set the values by which I live today. Had my wife and I had children we would have returned to Australia for their education.’ Identification with Homeland

29. Development of Multiple Identity ‘Dual nationality is important for expatriates as they don’t want to give up their Australian citizenship. Yet for business and other reasons being a citizen in the country they reside in is useful.’ ‘I have lived in England nearly 40 years but have kept my Australian citizenship.’ ‘We left Australia because in 1980-81, 2 PhDs in Physics in Adelaide had very little chance of getting reasonably equivalent jobs. We are still here because it is difficult to judge at a distance the costs and benefits of the return… I guess pragmatically we have emigrated but emotionally it feels more like an extended visit.’

30. Formal Expatriate Networks eg Southern Cross Established 2000 4,000 on mailing list Meetings in different countries Strong lobbying role - Dual citizenship - The right to vote in Australia Social role Funded by Australian businessmen, consulate help

31. ‘Perhaps my husband and I are slipping towards some expatriate no mans land outsiders not only in the country we have chosen to live in but our own country as well. We wonder if we will ever settle contentedly into Australia again, and fear we won’t. Perhaps we have entered, without even realising it, that strange state of exile where a memory of home is all we have left.’ Nikki Gemnell 2003

32. Diasporas in Australia Large immigrant communities 60 birthplace groups with 10,000+ 115 birthplace groups with 1,000+ Selective of highly skilled Variation in degree of identification with origin

33. Australia: Persons Born in the Asia-Pacific by Country of Birth, 2006 Source: ABS 2006 Census

34. Diaspora and Co-development The potential for migrants to help transform their native countries has captured the imaginations of national and local authorities, international institutions and the private sector. There is an emerging consensus that countries can co-operate to create triple wins, for migrants, for their countries of origin and for the societies that receive them’ (United Nations, 2006a, 5).

35. Major development agencies (World Bank, DFID, ADB, IOM, ILO) argue that diasporas based in high income countries can play a role in economic development and poverty reduction in low income origin areas. Several countries (e.g. Philippines, India, China) have set up agencies to engage with the diaspora and facilitate these impacts.

36. Remittances Flows to Developing Countries, 2002 to 2007 Source: World Bank 2008, p. 1

37. Remittances and Capital Flows to Developing Economies Source: World Bank 2007, p.2

38. Diaspora as Source of FDI Individual Investment (China) Influence on Companies (India)

39. Diaspora as Bridgehead Korea in the US In Canada a doubling of skilled migration from Asia resulted in a 74 percent increase in imports

40. Diaspora as Vehicle of Knowledge Transfer Silicon Valley linkages China initiatives Social remittances

41. Diaspora and Development Assistance Investment in education systems of origin countries of skilled migrants (Stark) Use of diaspora to facilitate development assistance

42. Diaspora and Return Permanent, Temporary and Virtual Return Facilitate Training, Knowledge Transfer Contribute to Development at Home

43. Policy Implications from Australia Policy toward Australia’s diaspora Can Australia assist diasporas within the country facilitating development in their home countries?

44. An Australian Expatriate Policy? In October 2003 the Australian Senate established an inquiry with the following terms of reference: The extent of the Australian diaspora. The variety of factors driving more Australians to live overseas. The costs, benefits and opportunities presented by the phenomenon. The needs and concerns of overseas Australians. The measures taken by comparable countries to respond to the needs of expatriates. Ways in which Australia can better use its expatriates to promote economic, social and cultural interests.

45. Contrasting Views on Diaspora Australia may be losing its 'brightest and best' whose loss is disproportionately large due to their innovation, entrepreneurship and economic, social, cultural and political leadership. There may be a net loss of highly skilled people in particular important niches, (e.g. mathematics, Wood (ed.) 2004) There was a strong feeling among expatriate organisations that they were 'the forgotten Australians' and were disenfranchised from aspects of Australian life they wished to be involved in.

46. Other Views It is of little concern – there are net migration gains in all skill categories; there are high rates of return migration. Australia should engage the diaspora in a number of ways. Australia should encourage return migration as part of its immigration program.

47. The Senate Committee brought down its report in March 2005 (Australian Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee 2005). It made 16 recommendations including: Measures to improve better provision of information to expatriates. Establishing a policy unit on expatriates within DFAT. Improve statistical information on expatriates. Revise consular role of missions to better engage expatriates. Improved registration of expatriates in missions. Amend Citizenship Act in a number of ways including to enable children of former Australian citizens to apply for Australian citizenship. Enable some expatriates to remain on Electoral enrolment. Encourage non-profit organisations to pursue philanthropic contributions from expatriate Australians.

48. Some opportunities which recognise that in a globalising world the Australian community comprises more than those residing within national boundaries: Direct involvement in Australia’s economy –Bridgeheads for the export of Australian goods and services (mining and wine industries) –Linking Australian-based and overseas-based scientists and researchers –Encouraging return of skilled Australians wishing to return –Source of investment (Fullilove and Flutter 2005, 61) estimate expatriates donate $80m a year to charity –Targeted programs, e.g. in the film industry (Walton 2005)

49. A Development-Friendly Policy Toward Diasporas in Australia? There are two interesting areas which are emerging in relation to diaspora and development. The first relates to the issue of return migration. The conventional wisdom has been that encouraging expatriates to return to permanently live in their homeland can deliver development dividends to emigration countries. However there is increasing evidence that in some cases a greater dividend can be delivered by the expatriate remaining in foreign countries but ‘returning’ frequently through regular visits and virtually through regular interaction with relevant people in the homeland (Wescott, 2005). Secondly it is evident that while the whole debate has been on what origin countries can do to involve the diaspora in development it is clear that destination countries too can be important in facilitating their immigrants retaining developmentally relevant linkages with their origins.

50. DFID, 2007, 1 How can development agencies increase the benefits and reduce the risks of migration for poor people in low income countries? Several interventions possible.

51. Interventions at Destination to Facilitate Development in Origins Remittances – increasing flow and providing opportunities for their productive use Build on skills and talents of minorities to promote development in origin (DFID) Having a development sensitive migration policy Encouraging dual citizenship, portability of pensions Encouraging maintenance of culture, links with origin countries Diaspora as agents of development?

52. Barriers Siloization of government agencies Culture of only considering the impact of migration on Australia Assimilationist views

53. Conclusion The rise of transnational communities has blurred the distinction between foreign and local No longer can nation states afford to follow development policies which are exclusively domestic in focus (Dade 2004) Australia is ‘hard-wired’ internationally both by its substantial communities of immigrants and their descendants linking with their homelands on the one hand and its expatriate community’s networks with Australia on the other Despite a national policy of multiculturalism there is a dearth of interest in either set of networks by government Little research for evidence-based policy.