The Basics of Supply and Demand

The Basics of Supply and Demand
Chapter 2 The Basics of Supply and Demand 1

Topics to Be Discussed Supply and Demand The Market Mechanism
Changes in Market Equilibrium Elasticities of Supply and Demand Short-Run Versus Long-Run Elasticities Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 2

Topics to Be Discussed Understanding and Predicting the Effects of Changing Market Conditions Effects of Government Intervention--Price Controls Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 3

Introduction Applications of Supply and Demand Analysis
Understanding and predicting how world economic conditions affect market price and production Analyzing the impact of government price controls, minimum wages, price supports, and production incentives Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 4

Introduction Applications of Supply and Demand Analysis
Analyzing how taxes, subsidies, and import restrictions affect consumers and producers Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 4

Supply and Demand The Supply Curve
The supply curve shows how much of a good producers are willing to sell at a given price, holding constant other factors that might affect quantity supplied Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 5

Supply and Demand The Supply Curve
This price-quantity relationship can be shown by the equation: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 5

Supply and Demand The Supply Curve Graphically Price ($ per unit)
Vertical axis measures price (P) received per unit in dollars Horizontal axis measures quantity (Q) supplied in number of units per time period Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 6

The supply curve slopes upward demonstrating that
Supply and Demand The Supply Curve Graphically Price ($ per unit) S The supply curve slopes upward demonstrating that at higher prices firms will increase output P2 Q2 P1 Q1 Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 7

Supply and Demand Non-price Determining Variables of Supply
Costs of Production Labor Capital Raw Materials Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 27

Supply and Demand The cost of raw materials falls Change in Supply
At P1, produce Q2 At P2, produce Q1 Supply curve shifts right to S’ More produced at any price on S’ than on S P S S’ Q2 P1 P2 Q1 Q0 Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 31

Supply and Demand Supply - A Review
Supply is determined by non-price supply-determining variables as such as the cost of labor, capital, and raw materials. Changes in supply are shown by shifting the entire supply curve. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 35

Supply and Demand Supply - A Review
Changes in quantity supplied are shown by movements along the supply curve and are caused by a change in the price of the product. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 35

Supply and Demand The Demand Curve
The demand curve shows how much of a good consumers are willing to buy as the price per unit changes holding non-price factors constant. This price-quantity relationship can be shown by the equation: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 8

Supply and Demand Quantity Price ($ per unit) Vertical axis measures
price (P) paid per unit in dollars Horizontal axis measures quantity (Q) demanded in number of units per time period Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 9

Supply and Demand D Quantity Price ($ per unit)
The demand curve slopes downward demonstrating that consumers are willing to buy more at a lower price as the product becomes relatively cheaper and the consumer’s real income increases. Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 10

Supply and Demand Non-price Determining Variables of Demand Income
Consumer Tastes Price of Related Goods Substitutes Complements Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 36

Supply and Demand Income Increases Change in Demand P D D’ Q2
At P1, produce Q2 At P2, produce Q1 Demand Curve shifts right More purchased at any price on D’ than on D Q1 P2 Q0 P1 Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 41

Shifts in Supply and Demand
Demand - A Review Demand is determined by non-price demand-determining variables, such as, income, price of related goods, and tastes. Changes in demand are shown by shifting the entire demand curve. Changes in quantity demanded are shown by movements along the demand curve. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 45

The Market Mechanism S P0 D Q0 Price ($ per unit)
The curves intersect at equilibrium, or market- clearing, price. At P0 the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity demanded at Q0 . P0 Q0 Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 12

The Market Mechanism Characteristics of the equilibrium or market clearing price: QD = QS No shortage No excess supply No pressure on the price to change Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 13

The Market Mechanism S Surplus P1 P0 D Q0 Price ($ per unit)
If price is above equilibrium: 1) Price is above the market clearing price 2) Qs > Qd 3) Price falls to the market-clearing price P1 Surplus P0 Q0 Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 14

The Market Mechanism The market price is above equilibrium A Surplus
There is excess supply Producers lower prices Quantity demanded increases and quantity supplied decreases The market continues to adjust until the equilibrium price is reached. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 19

The Market Mechanism Surplus S D Q1 P1 Q2 P2 Q3 Price ($ per unit)
Quantity Price ($ per unit) S D Q1 Assume the price is P1 , then: 1) Qs : Q1 > Qd : Q2 2) Excess supply is Q1:Q2. 3) Producers lower price. 4) Quantity supplied decreases and quantity demanded increases. 5) Equilibrium at P2Q3 P1 Surplus Q2 P2 Q3 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 17

The Market Mechanism The market price is above equilibrium:
Surplus - Review: The market price is above equilibrium: There is excess supply Producers lower prices Quantity demanded increases and quantity supplied decreases The market continues to adjust until the equilibrium price is reached Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 15

The Market Mechanism S Shortage D Q3 P3 Q1 Q2 P2 Price ($ per unit)
Quantity Price ($ per unit) S D Assume the price is P2 , then: 1) Qd : Q2 > Qs : Q1 2) Shortage is Q1:Q2. 3) Producers raise price. 4) Quantity supplied increases and quantity demanded decreases. 5) Equilibrium at P3, Q3 Q3 P3 Q1 Q2 P2 Shortage Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 22

The Market Mechanism The market price is below equilibrium: Shortage
There is a shortage Producers raise prices Quantity demanded decreases and quantity supplied increases The market continues to adjust until the new equilibrium price is reached. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 24

The Market Mechanism Market Mechanism Summary
1) Supply and demand interact to determine the market-clearing price. 2) When not in equilibrium, the market will adjust to alleviate a shortage or surplus and return the market to equilibrium. 3) Markets must be competitive for the mechanism to be efficient. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 25

Changes In Market Equilibrium
Equilibrium prices are determined by the relative level of supply and demand. Supply and demand are determined by particular values of supply and demand determining variables. Changes in any one or combination of these variables can cause a change in the equilibrium price and/or quantity. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 26

Raw material prices fall S shifts to S’ P1 of Q1, Q2 P3, Q3 P S D S’ Q2 Q1 P1 P3 Q3 Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 34

Income Increases Demand shifts to D1 P1 of Q1, Q2 P3, Q3 P S D D’ Q3 P3 Q2 Q1 P1 Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 44

Income Increases & raw material prices fall The increase in D is greater than the increase in S Equilibrium price and quantity increase to P2, Q2 P S S’ D D’ P2 Q2 P1 Q1 Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 49

Shifts in Supply and Demand
When supply and demand change simultaneously, the impact on the equilibrium price and quantity is determined by: 1) The relative size and direction of the change 2) The shape of the supply and demand models Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 50

The Price of Eggs and the Price of a College Education Revisited
The real price of eggs fell 59% from to 1998. Supply increased due to the increased mechanization of poultry farming and the reduced cost of production. Demand decreased due to the increasing consumer concern over the health and cholesterol consequences of eating eggs. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 51

Market for Eggs P S1970 S1998 D1970 D1998 Q (million dozens) (1970
Prices fell until a new equilibrium was reached at $0.26 and a quantity of 5,300 million dozen $0.26 5,300 P (1970 dollars per dozen) S1970 D1970 D1998 S1998 $0.61 5,500 Q (million dozens) Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 54

The Price of a College Education
The real price of a college education rose 68 percent from 1970 to 1995. Supply decreased due to higher costs of equipping and maintaining modern classrooms, laboratories and libraries, and higher faculty salaries. Demand increased due a larger percentage of a larger number of high school graduates attending college. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 55

Market for a College Education
P (annual cost in 1970 dollars) S1995 $4,248 14.9 Prices rose until a new equilibrium was reached at $4,573 and a quantity of 12.3 million students D1995 D1970 S1970 $2,530 8.6 Q (millions of students enrolled)) Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 58

Wage Inequality in the United States Real after-tax income from 1977 to 1999: Rose 40+% for the top 20% of the income distribution Fell 10+% for the bottom 20% Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 26

Question Why did the income distribution become more unequal for 1977 to 1999? Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 26

Consumption & Price of Copper 1880-1998
Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand

The Long-Run Behavior of Natural Resource Prices
Observations Consumption of copper has increased about a hundred fold from 1880 through 1998 indicating a large increase in demand. The real price for copper has remained relatively constant. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 59

Quantity Price S1900 S1950 D1950 S1998 D1998 D1900 Long-Run Path of Price and Consumption Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 63

Conclusion Decreases in the costs of production have increased the supply by more than enough to offset the increase in demand. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 64

Observation To accurately predict the future price of a product or service, it is necessary to consider the potential change in supply and demand. 1970 predictions for oil and other minerals proved incorrect because they only considered the demand side of the market. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 65

Elasticities of Supply and Demand
Generally, elasticity is a measure of the sensitivity of one variable to another. It tells us the percentage change in one variable in response to a one percent change in another variable. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 69

Price Elasticity of Demand Measures the sensitivity of quantity demanded to price changes. It measures the percentage change in the quantity demanded for a good or service that results from a one percent change in the price. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 70

The price elasticity of demand is: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 71

Price Elasticity of Demand The percentage change in a variable is the absolute change in the variable divided by the original level of the variable. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 72

Price Elasticity of Demand So the price elasticity of demand is also: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 72

Interpreting Price Elasticity of Demand Values 1) Because of the inverse relationship between P and Q; EP is negative. 2) If EP > 1, the percent change in quantity is greater than the percent change in price. We say the demand is price elastic. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 73

Interpreting Price Elasticity of Demand Values 3) If EP < 1, the percent change in quantity is less than the percent change in price. We say the demand is price inelastic. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 74

Price Elasticity of Demand The primary determinant of price elasticity of demand is the availability of substitutes. Many substitutes demand is price elastic Few substitutes demand is price inelastic Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 75

Price Elasticities of Demand
Q = 8 - 2P Ep = -1 Ep = 0 The lower portion of a downward sloping demand curve is less elastic than the upper portion. 4 8 2 Linear Demand Curve Q = a - bP Q = 8 - 2P Q Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 76

Quantity Price Infinitely Elastic Demand D P* Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 77

Completely Inelastic Demand Quantity Price Q* Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 78

Other Demand Elasticities Income elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in quantity demanded resulting from a one percent change in income. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 79

Other Demand Elasticities The income elasticity of demand is: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 80

Other Demand Elasticities Cross elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in the quantity demanded of one good that results from a one percent change in the price of another good. For example consider the substitute goods, butter and margarine. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 81

The cross elasticity of demand is: The cross elasticity for substitutes is positive, while that for complements is negative. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 83

Price elasticity of supply measures the percentage change in quantity supplied resulting from a 1 percent change in price. The elasticity is usually positive because price and quantity supplied are directly related. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 84

We can refer to elasticity of supply with respect to interest rates, wage rates, and the cost of raw materials. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 84

The Market for Wheat 1981 Supply Curve for Wheat QS = 1, P 1981 Demand Curve for Wheat QD = 3, P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand

The Market for Wheat Equilibrium: Q S = Q D Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand Slide 63

The Market for Wheat Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand Slide 64

The Market for Wheat Assume the price of wheat is $4.00/bushel Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand

Changes in the Market: 1981-1998
The Market for Wheat Supply (Qs) Demand (QD) Equilibrium Price (Qs = QD) P P P = P P = P1981 = $3.46/bushel 1998 1, P 3, P 1, P = 3, P P1998 = $2.65/bushel Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 66

Short-Run Versus Long-Run Elasticities
Demand Price elasticity of demand varies with the amount of time consumers have to respond to a price. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 85

Demand Most goods and services: Short-run elasticity is less than long-run elasticity. (e.g. gasoline, Drs.) Other Goods (durables): Short-run elasticity is greater than long-run elasticity (e.g. automobiles) Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 86

Gasoline: Short-Run and Long-Run Demand Curves
DSR Quantity Price DLR People tend to drive smaller and more fuel efficient cars in the long-run Gasoline Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 87

Automobiles: Short-Run and Long-Run Demand Curves
DLR People may put off immediate consumption, but eventually older cars must be replaced. Quantity Price DSR Automobiles Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 88

Income Elasticities Income elasticity also varies with the amount of time consumers have to respond to an income change. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 89

Income Elasticities Most goods and services: Income elasticity is greater in the long-run than in the short run. Higher incomes may be converted into bigger cars so the income elasticity of demand for gasoline increases with time. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 90

Income Elasticities Other Goods (durables): Income elasticity is less in the long-run than in the short-run. Originally, consumers will want to hold more cars. Later, purchases will only to be to replace old cars. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 91

The Demand for Gasoline and Automobiles Gasoline and automobiles are complementary goods. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 92

The Demand for Gasoline and Automobiles Gasoline The long-run price and income elasticities are larger than the short-run elasticities. Automobiles The long-run price and income elasticities are smaller than the short-run elasticities. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 92

The Demand for Gasoline Years Following Price or Income Change Elasticity Price Income Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 93

The Demand for Automobiles Years Following Price or Income Change Elasticity Price Income Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 93

The Demand for Gasoline and Automobiles Data Explains: 1) Why the price of oil did not continue to rise above $30/barrel even though it rose very rapidly in the early 1970s. 2) Why automobile sales are so sensitive to the business cycle. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 95

Supply Most goods and services: Long-run price elasticity of supply is greater than short-run price elasticity of supply. Other Goods (durables, recyclables): Long-run price elasticity of supply is less than short-run price elasticity of supply Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 96

Primary Copper: Short-Run and Long-Run Supply Curves SSR Quantity Price SLR Due to limited capacity, firms are limited by output constraints in the short-run. In the long-run, they can expand. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 98

Secondary Copper: Short-Run and Long-Run Supply Curves SLR Price increases provide an incentive to convert scrap copper into new supply. In the long-run, this stock of scrap copper begins to fall. SSR Quantity Price Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 98

Supply of Copper Price Elasticity of: Short-run Long-run Primary supply Secondary supply Total supply Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 99

Weather in Brazil and the price of Coffee in New York Elasticity explains why coffee prices are very volatile. Due to the differences in supply elasticity in the long-run and short run. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 100

Price of Brazilian Coffee

Coffee S P0 A freeze or drought decreases the supply of coffee S’ Q1 Price D P1 Short-Run 1) Supply is completely inelastic 2) Demand is relatively inelastic 3) Very large change in price Q0 Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 101

Coffee S’ S Quantity Price D P2 Q2 Intermediate-Run 1) Supply and demand are more elastic 2) Price falls back to P2. 3) Quantity falls to Q2 P0 Q0 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 104

Coffee Quantity Price S P0 Q0 Long-Run 1) Supply is extremely elastic. 2) Price falls back to P0. 3) Quantity increase to Q0. D Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 105

Understanding and Predicting the Effects of Changing Market Conditions
First, we must learn how to “fit” linear demand and supply curves to market data. Then we can determine numerically how a change in a variable will cause supply or demand to shift and thereby affect the market price and quantity. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 106

Available Data Equilibrium Price, P* Equilibrium Quantity, Q* Price elasticity of supply, ES, and demand, ED. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 107

Price Supply: Q = c + dP -c/d Demand: Q = a - bP a/b P* Q* ED = -bP*/Q* ES = dP*/Q* Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 108

Let’s begin with the equations for supply and demand: Demand: QD = a - bP Supply: QS = c + dP We must choose numbers for a, b, c, and d. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 109

Step 1: Recall: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 110

For linear demand curves, the change in quantity divided by the change in price is constant (equal to the slope of the curve). Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 111

Substituting the slopes for each into the formula for elasticity, we get: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 112

Since we will have values for ED, ES, P*, and Q*, we can solve for b & d, and a & c. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 113

Deriving the long-run supply and demand for copper: The relevant data are: Q* = 7.5 mmt/yr. P* = 75 cents/pound ES = 1.6 ED = -0.8 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 114

Es = d(P*/Q*) 1.6 = d(75/7.5) = 0.1d d = 1.6/0.1 = 16 Ed = -b(P*/Q*) -0.8 = -b(.75/7.5) = -0.1b b = 0.8/0.1 = 8 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 115

Supply = QS* = c + dP* 7.5 = c + 16(0.75) 7.5 = c + 12 c = c = -4.5 Q = P Demand = QD* = a -bP* 7.5 = a -(8)(.75) 7.5 = a - 6 a = a =13.5 Q = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 116

Setting supply equal to demand gives: Supply = p = p = Demand 16p + 8p = p = 18/24 = .75 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 117

Mmt/yr Price Supply: QS = P -c/d Demand: QD = P a/b .75 7.5 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 118

We have written supply and demand so that they only depend upon price. Demand could also depend upon income. Demand would then be written as: Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 119

We know the following information regarding the copper industry: I = 1.0 P* = 0.75 Q* = 7.5 b = 8 Income elasticity: E = 1.3 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 120

f can be found by substituting known values into the income elasticity formula: and Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 121

Solving for f gives: 1.3 = (1.0/7.5)f f = (1.3)(7.5)/1.0 = 9.75 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 122

Solving for a gives: 7.5 = a - 8(0.75) (1.0) a = 3.75 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 123

Declining Demand and the Behavior of Copper Prices
The relevant factors leading to a decrease in the demand for copper are: 1) A decrease in the growth rate of power generation 2) The development of substitutes: fiber optics and aluminum Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 124

Real versus Nominal Prices of Copper 1965 - 1999

We will try to estimate the impact of a 20 percent decrease in the demand for copper. Recall the equation for the demand curve: Q = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 125

Multiply this equation by 0.80 to get the new equation. This gives: Q = (0.80)( P) Q = P Recall the equation for supply: Q = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 126

The new equilibrium price is: P = P -16P + 6.4P = P = 15.3/22.4 P = 68.3 cents/pound Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 127

The twenty percent decrease in demand resulted in a reduction in the equilibrium price to 68.3 cents from 75 cents, or 10 percent. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 128

Price of Crude Oil Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand

Upheaval in the World Oil Market
We can predict numerically the impact of a decrease in the supply of OPEC oil. In 1995: P* = $18/barrel World demand and total supply = 23 bb/yr. OPEC supply = 10 bb/yr. Non-OPEC supply = 13 bb/yr Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 129

Price Elasticity Estimates
Short-Run Long-Run World Demand: Competitive Supply (non-OPEC) Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 130

Short-Run Impact of a stoppage of Saudi Production equal to 3 bb/yr. Short-run Demand D = P Short-run Competitive Supply SC = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 131

Short-Run Impact of a stoppage of Saudi Production equal to 3 bb/yr. Short-run Total Supply--before supply reduction (includes OPEC, 10bb/yr) ST = P Short-run Total Supply--after supply reduction ST = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 132

New Price After Reduction Demand = Supply P = P P = 41.08 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 133

Impact of Saudi Production Cut
18 ST S’T SC D Price ($ per barrel) 45 Short-Run Effect 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Quantity (billions barrels/yr) 5 10 15 20 23 25 30 35 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 134

Long-Run Impact of a stoppage Saudi Production equal to 3 bb/yr.. Long-run Demand D = P Long-run Total Supply S = P Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 136

New Price is found setting long-run supply equal to long-run demand: P = P P = 21.75 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 137

Impact of Saudi Production Cut
SC ST Due to the elasticity of the long-run supply and demand curves, the long-run effect of a cut in production is much less. S’T Long-run Effect Price ($ per barrel) 45 D 40 35 30 25 20 18 15 10 5 Quantity (billions barrels/yr) 5 10 15 20 23 25 30 35 Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 139

Effects of Government Intervention --Price Controls
If the government decides that the equilibrium price is too high, they may establish a maximum allowable ceiling price. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 140

Effects of Price Controls
Q0 S D Pmax Excess demand If price is regulated to be no higher than Pmax, quantity supplied falls to Q1 and quantity demanded increases to Q2. A shortage results Quantity Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 141

Price Controls and Natural Gas Shortages
In 1954, the federal government began regulating the wellhead price of natural gas. In 1962, the ceiling prices that were imposed became binding and shortages resulted. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 143

Price controls created an excess demand of 7 trillion cubic feet. Price regulation was a major component of U.S. energy policy in the 1960s and 1970s, and it continued to influence the natural gas markets in the 1980s. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 144

The Data: Natural Gas Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand

Summary Supply-demand analysis is a basic tool of microeconomics.
The market mechanism is the tendency for supply and demand to equilibrate, so that there is neither excess demand nor excess supply Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 145

Summary Elasticities describe the responsiveness of supply and demand to changes in price, income, and other variables. Elasticities pertain to a time frame. If we can estimate the supply and demand curves for a particular market, we can calculate the market clearing price. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 146

Summary Simple numerical analysis can often be done by fitting linear supply and demand curves to data on price and quantity and to estimates of elasticities. Chapter 2: The Basics of Supply and Demand 147

The Basics of Supply and Demand
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