1. LING 438/538 Computational Linguistics Sandiway Fong Lecture 26: 11/30

2. 2 Administrivia 538 Presentation Assignments

3. 3 Administrivia 538 Presentation slides due tomorrow midnight in my mailbox

4. 4 Administrivia Homework 6 due tonight Question 1 –No, it’s not a trick question –Yes, there is a difference If you didn’t find one, look a little harder...

5. 5 Last Time Finished looking at the LR(0) and LR(1)-based bottom-up parsing methods Crucial ideas: – construction of a finite state machine – machine states are sets of dotted rules – transition between states based on the progression of the “dot” – actions shift: move the “dot” past a terminal symbol reduce: “dot” at the end of a rule – machine uses a stack to keep track of the states – grammar rules are no longer used directly during the parsing stage – such a machine can be built automatically (Homework 6 code)

6. 6 Chart Parsing another use of the dotted rule notation a chart is a graph data structure used to store partial and complete parses Kay (1980) chart can be built using different strategies (e.g. top-down, bottom-up) can be guided or combined with Left- Corner Parsing or online or offline dotted rule manipulation: –e.g. Earley algorithm (online) –(offline) LR machine construction techniques also: partial parses can be recovered observation: parses often share common constituents –cf. dynamic programming example –I saw a man... –only have to parse.. [ PP with a very nice-looking telescope that I also happened to have bought last Friday] once –I [ VP saw [ NP [ NP a man][ PP... ]] NP-attachment –I [ VP [ VP saw [ NP a man]][ PP... ]] VP-attachment standard Prolog backtracking will undo the whole PP

7. 7 Chart Parsing “Chart” –graph data structure for storing partial and complete parses –graph = (vertices,edges) vertex –used to mark the input edge (active, inactive) –active edge: denote incompletely “parsed” rule –inactive edge: completely “parsed” rule dotted rule notation (again) –“dot” (.) indicates the progress of the parse through a phrase structure rule examples – (active) vp --> v. np means we’ve seen v and predict np –(active) np -->. d np means we’re predicting a d... to be followed by a np –(inactive) vp --> vp pp. means we’ve completed a vp

8. 8 Chart Parsing Example: (multiple parses stored in the chart) –cf. homework 6 1 I 2 saw 3 a 4 man 5 with 6 a 7 telescope 8 n v d n p d n np vp crossing!

9. 9 Chart Parsing: Algorithm example: top-down stage 1: Apply lexical rules Prolog representation: –edge(V 1, V 2, DottedRule). DottedRule = LHS --> Seen. Predict –edge(V 1, V 2, LHS, Seen, Predict). 1 I 2 saw 3 a 4 man 5 with 6 a 7 telescope 8 n v d n p d n

10. 10 Chart Parsing: Algorithm example edge(1,2,n,[],[]). edge(2,3,v,[],[]). edge(3,4,d,[],[]). edge(4,5,n,[],[]). edge(5,6,p,[],[]). edge(6,7,d,[],[]). edge(7,8,n,[],[]). –inactive edges: edge(_,_,_,_,[]).

11. 11 Chart Parsing: Algorithm Step 2: Predict (top-down): –add active edges beginning with start symbol, e.g. S –example s -->. np vp np -->. d np np -->. n edge(1,1,s,[],[np,vp]). edge(1,1,np,[],[d,n]). edge(1,1,np,[],[n]). –Active edges: edge(_,_,_,_,L). L ≠ []

12. 12 Chart Parsing: Algorithm Step 3: Fundamental Rule –“advance the dot” –inference role –if LHS --> Seen. X StillToSee (active) X --> RHS. (inactive) –then LHS --> Seen X. StillToSee –note: assuming of course, the edges line up...

13. 13 Chart Parsing: Algorithm Step 3: Fundamental Rule in Prolog –example edge(1,1,np,[],[d,n]). edge(1,2,d,[],[]).  edge(1,2,np,[d],[n]).(active)

14. 14 Machine Translation Background Reading: chapter 21 Rich Topic: –not covered in much depth there

15. 15 Machine Translation 21.1 Language Differences and Similarities Word Order – English: SVO – Japanese: SOV (head-final) e.g. postpositions vs. prepositions Morphology –agreement Spanish is a pro-drop language (omit subject pronouns) but missing subject pronoun is recoverable from verb morphology –causative a bound morpheme (suffix) in Japanese a word in English cf. kill = cause to die conceptual/semantic differences –also lexical gaps

16. 16 Machine Translation Tree-to-tree transferInterlingua source sentence sourcetarget sentence source sentence target sentence source target interlingua

17. 17 Machine Translation: Beginnings c. 1950 (just after WWII) –electronic computers invented for numerical analysis code breaking Book (Collection of Papers) Readings in Machine Translation, Eds. Nirenburg, S. et al. MIT Press 2003. (Part 1: Historical Perspective) –Weaver, Reifer, Yngve, and Bar-Hillel … Killer Apps: Language comprehension tasks and Machine Translation (MT)

18. 18 Machine Translation: Beginnings Success with computational methods and code-breaking [Translation. Weaver, W.] citing Shannon’s work, Weaver asks: “If we have useful methods for solving almost any cryptographic problem, may it not be that with proper interpretation we already have useful methods for translation?”

19. 19 Machine Translation: Beginnings Statistical Basis Popular in the early days and has undergone a modern revival The Present Status of Automatic Translation of Languages (Bar-Hillel, 1951) –“I believe this overestimation is a remnant of the time, seven or eight years ago, when many people thought that the statistical theory of communication would solve many, if not all, of the problems of communication” Bar-Hillel’s criticisms include –much valuable time spent on gathering statistics –no longer a bottleneck today

20. 20 Machine Translation: Beginnings Statistical Basis Popular in the early days and has undergone a modern revival Statistical Methods and Linguistics (Abney, 1996) –Chomsky vs. Shannon Statistics and low (zero) frequency items Colorless green ideas sleep furiously vs. furiously sleep ideas green colorless Modern answer: smoothing No relation between order of approximation and grammaticality –n-th order approximation reflecting degree of grammaticality as n increases Parameter estimation problem is intractable (for humans) –statistical models involve learning or estimating very large number of parameters –“we cannot seriously propose that a child learns the values of 10 9 parameters in a childhood lasting only 10 8 seconds” –see IBM translation reference later (17 million parameters)

21. 21 Machine Translation: Beginnings (Bar-Hillel, 1951) Reifer (University of Washington) –Unbelievably optimistic claims –Compounding: –“found moreover that only three matching procedures and four matching steps are necessary to deal effectively with any of these ten types of compounds of any language in which they occur” –[i.e. we have heuristics that we think work] –“it will not be very long before the remaining linguistic problems in machine translation will be solved for a number of important languages”

22. 22 Machine Translation: Beginnings [Wiener] –“Basic English is the reverse of mechanical and throws upon such words as get a burden which is much greater than most words carry” [Weaver] –Multiple meanings on get yes –but a limited number of two word combinations get up, get over, get back –2000 words => 4 million two word combinations –not formidable to a “modern” (1947) computer get is very polysemous WordNet (Miller, 1981) lists 36 senses

23. 23 Statistical Machine Translation Re-emergence of the Statistical Basis Conditions are different now –Computers 10 5 times faster –There has been a data revolution Gigabytes of storage really cheap Large, machine-readable corpora readily available for parameter estimation

24. 24 Statistical Machine Translation Avoid the explicit construction of linguistically sophisticated models of grammar –Not the only way: e.g. Example-based MT (EBMT) Pioneered by IBM researchers (Brown et al., 1990) –Language Model Pr(S) estimated by n-grams –Translation Model Pr(T|S) estimated through alignment models

25. 25 Statistical Machine Translation Parameter estimation by crunching large-scale corpora Hansard French/English parallel corpus –The Hansard Corpus consists of parallel texts in English and Canadian French, drawn from official records of the proceedings of the Canadian Parliament. While the content is therefore limited to legislative discourse, it spans a broad assortment of topics and the stylistic range includes spontaneous discussion and written correspondance along with legislative propositions and prepared speeches. (IBM’s experiment: 100 million words, est. 17 million parameters)

26. 26 The State of the Art www.languageweaver.com Statistical MT System [Spinoff from USC/ISI work] “ Language Weaver ’ s SMTS system is a significant advancement in the state of the art for machine translation … and [we] are confident that Language Weaver has produced the most commercially viable Arabic translation system available today. ” Metrics: performance determined by competition –common test and training data 1980s Japanese 1970s1960s Russian W. European languages present day Arabic

27. 27 Real Progress or Not? (2003) MT Summit IX. –Proceedings available online http://www.amtaweb.org/summit/MTSummit/ Interesting paper by J. Hutchins: Has machine translation improved? Some historical comparisons. “… overall there has been definite progress since the mid 1960s and very probably since the early 1970s. What is more uncertain is whether and where there have been improvements since the early 1980s.” – Compared modern day systems against systems from the 1960s, 1970s (e.g. SYSTRAN) and 1980s Difficult: first systems are lost to us Languages –Russian to English –French to English –German to English

28. 28 Real Progress or Not? http://babelfish.altavista.com/

29. 29 Real Progress or Not? [Hutchins, pp.7-8] “The impediments to the improvement of translation quality are the same now that they have been from the beginning: –failures of disambiguation –incorrect selection of target language words –problems with anaphora pronouns (it vs. she/he) definite articles (e.g. when translating from Russian and French) –inappropriate retention of source language structures e.g. verb-initial constructions (from Russian) verb-final placements (from German) non-English pre-nominal participle constructions (e.g. with interest to be read materials from both Russian and German) –problems of coordination –numerous and varied difficulties with prepositions –in general always problems with any multi-clause sentence” Roughly echoes what Bar-Hillel said about 50 years earlier

30. 30 Statistical vs. Traditional Which ones are commercially deployed? –internet translators: traditional –new languages: statistical

31. 31 Translating is EU's new boom industry 2004 article

32. 32 Translating is EU's new boom industry

33. 33 Translating is EU's new boom industry market is there: opportunities for machine translation?