1. First-Order Logic

2. Limitations of propositional logic Suppose you want to say “All humans are mortal” –In propositional logic, you would need ~6.7 billion statements Suppose you want to say “Some people can run a marathon” –You would need a disjunction of ~6.7 billion statements

3. First-order logic Propositional logic assumes the world consists of atomic facts First-order logic assumes the world contains objects, relations, and functions

4. Syntax of FOL Constants:John, Sally, 2,... Variables:x, y, a, b,... Predicates:Person(John), Siblings(John, Sally), IsOdd(2),... Functions:MotherOf(John), Sqrt(x),... Connectives: , , , ,  Equality:= Quantifiers: ,  Term:Constant or Variable or Function(Term 1,..., Term n ) Atomic sentence: Predicate(Term 1,..., Term n ) or Term 1 = Term 2 Complex sentence: made from atomic sentences using connectives and quantifiers

5. Semantics of FOL Sentences are true with respect to a model and an interpretation Model contains objects (domain elements) and relations among them Interpretation specifies referents for constant symbols → objects predicate symbols → relations function symbols →functional relations An atomic sentence Predicate(Term 1,..., Term n ) is true iff the objects referred to by Term 1,..., Term n are in the relation referred to by predicate

6. Universal quantification  x P(x) Example: “Everyone at UNC is smart”  x At(x,UNC)  Smart(x) Why not  x At(x,UNC)  Smart(x)? Roughly speaking, equivalent to the conjunction of all possible instantiations of the variable: [At(John, UNC)  Smart(John)] ... [At(Richard, UNC)  Smart(Richard)] ...  x P(x) is true in a model m iff P(x) is true with x being each possible object in the model

7. Existential quantification  x P(x) Example: “Someone at UNC is smart”  x At(x,UNC)  Smart(x) Why not  x At(x,UNC)  Smart(x)? Roughly speaking, equivalent to the disjunction of all possible instantiations: [At(John,UNC)  Smart(John)]  [At(Richard,UNC)  Smart(Richard)]  …  x P(x) is true in a model m iff P(x) is true with x being some possible object in the model

8. Properties of quantifiers  x  y is the same as  y  x  x  y is the same as  y  x  x  y is not the same as  y  x  x  y Loves(x,y) “There is a person who loves everyone”  y  x Loves(x,y) “Everyone is loved by at least one person” Quantifier duality: each quantifier can be expressed using the other with the help of negation  x Likes(x,IceCream)  x  Likes(x,IceCream)  x Likes(x,Broccoli)  x  Likes(x,Broccoli)

9. Equality Term 1 = Term 2 is true under a given model if and only if Term 1 and Term 2 refer to the same object E.g., definition of Sibling in terms of Parent:  x,y Sibling(x,y)  [  (x = y)   m,f  (m = f)  Parent(m,x)  Parent(f,x)  Parent(m,y)  Parent(f,y)]

10. Using FOL: The Kinship Domain Brothers are siblings  x,y Brother(x,y)  Sibling(x,y) “Sibling” is symmetric  x,y Sibling(x,y)  Sibling(y,x) One's mother is one's female parent  m,c (Mother(c) = m)  (Female(m)  Parent(m,c))

11. Using FOL: The Set Domain  s Set(s)  (s = {})  (  x,s 2 Set(s 2 )  s = {x|s 2 })  x,s {x|s} = {}  x,s x  s  s = {x|s}  x,s x  s  [  y,s 2 (s = {y|s 2 }  (x = y  x  s 2 ))]  s 1,s 2 s 1  s 2  (  x x  s 1  x  s 2 )  s 1,s 2 (s 1 = s 2 )  (s 1  s 2  s 2  s 1 )  x,s 1,s 2 x  (s 1  s 2 )  (x  s 1  x  s 2 )  x,s 1,s 2 x  (s 1  s 2 )  (x  s 1  x  s 2 )

12. Why “First order”? FOL permits quantification over variables Higher order logics permit quantification over functions and predicates:  P,x [P(x)   P(x)]  x,y (x=y)  [  P (P(x)  P(y))]