2.  Intracloud  Cloud-to-Cloud  Anvil Crawlers  Cloud-to-Air  Sprites and Jets

3.  Predicted in 1920s by C.T.R. Wilson  Officially documented July 6, 1989  Not categorized as lightning, but a electrical discharge phenomena  Placed into separate categories: sprites, elves, fairies, gnomes, jets, and halos  Duration: 1-60 ms  Effect atmospheric composition

4.  Sprites: ◦ low luminosity ◦ associated with positive cloud to ground and intracloud lightning ◦ altitude range: ~50-90 km ◦ Ionized balls travel up, and then down (process repeats several times) ◦ tendrils on bottom and branches on top ◦ red due to nitrogen ionization ◦ Cold plasma, acts as fluorescence ◦ Duration: ~10 ms

5.  Blue Jets: higher luminosity associated with strong hail storms altitude range: ~20 km - 50 km typically conical w./ 15° opening color due to low-emission ionization of N₂ Duration: ~20 ms  ELVES (Emission of Light and Very Low Frequency Perturbations due to Electromagnetic Pulse Sources): o low luminosity o associated with any cloud to ground lightning and short EMPs (electromagnetic pulses) o usually accompanied by sprites o altitude range: ~ 90-110 km o rapidly expanding red disk: ~ 300 km diameter o Duration: <1 ms

6. “…Plasma! Electrons Are Free!” - They Might Be Giants

7.  Ionized particles equal parts of cations and electrons mostly neutral atoms  Lower electron densities w/ higher altitudes and temperatures  Absorption of X-ray, UV, and shorter wavelengths due to Solar radiation  Higher density in high and polar latitudes

8. Composition: N₂ and O₂  D: lowest; 60 – 90 km NO, N₂, and O₂ ions Loss of energy due to recombination HF radio waves not deflected Disappears at night

9.  E: middle; 90 -120 km mostly O₂ ions HF radio deflected Most layer disappears at night; remaining increases altitude  F: highest; 200 – 500 km Mostly O ions; breaks up into two levels during day F1: deformation F2: responsible for most skywave propagation deflecting HF radio waves

10.  Chapman Functions form basis for modeling N(h)=electron densityN 0 =max electron density h 0 =height of max densityh=altitudeH s =effective scale height  Plasma Frequency

11.  "Ionosphere - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 June 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere  "Lightning Types and Classifications : Storm Highway Weather Library." Storm Highway :: Storm Chasing, Photography, Video and Travels by Dan Robinson. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 June 2010. http://wvlightning.com/types.shtml.http://wvlightning.com/types.shtml  "TLE - an introdution." Sprites, Jets and other Transient Luminous Events. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 June 2010. http://www.spritesandjets.com/TLE-introduction.htm. http://www.spritesandjets.com/TLE-introduction.htm  "Upper-atmospheric lightning - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 June 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper- atmospheric_lightning.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper- atmospheric_lightning