1. Developing The Problem And Using The Literature
Chapter 2
Developing The Problem
And Using The Literature
Research Methods in Physical Activity

2. Purpose of Research Methods
♦ to approach and solve problems in a scientific way;
♦ to search the literature;
♦ to write in a clear, scientific fashion;
♦ to understand basic measurement and statistical issues;
♦ to use an appropriate writing style;
♦ to be an intelligent consumer of research; and
♦ to appreciate the wide variety of research strategies and techniques used in an area of study.
Guidelines for Finding A Topic
be aware of the research being done at your institution, because research spawns other research ideas.
be alert for any controversial issues in some area of interest. Lively controversy prompts research in efforts to resolve the issue.
read a review paper (possibly in a review journal, research journal, or recent textbook). From there, read several research studies in the reference lists and locate other current research papers on the topic.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

3. Using Inductive and Deductive Reasoning ( link )
The means for identifying specific research problems come from two methods of reasoning: inductive and deductive. (See Figure 2.1/2.2 , p.29)
The inductive reasoning process: (a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances)
Individual observations are tied together into specific hypotheses, which are grouped into ore general explanations that are united into theory. To move from the level of observations to that of theory requires many individual studies that test specific hypotheses. But even beyond the individual studies, someone must see how all the findings relate and then offer a theoretical explanation that encompasses all the individual findings.
The deductive reasoning process: (Reasoning process where deductive arguments are constructed to show that a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of premises or hypotheses)
Deductive reasoning moves from a theoretical explanation of events to specific hypotheses that are tested against (or compared with) reality to evaluate whether the hypotheses are correct.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

4. Using Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Several researchers have tested this hypothesis, identified by deductive reasoning, and found within any given study, both inductive and deductive reasoning are useful.
The total research setting was presented in the last chapter in figure 1.2 (p. 22). Review how the deductive and inductive processes operate; that is, at the beginning of a study, the researcher deduces hypotheses from relevant theories and concepts and induces hypotheses from relevant findings in other research.
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Research Methods in Physical Activity

5. Purpose of The Literature Review
1)Whatever the topic, past research is invaluable in planning new research.
2) You will need to know how to locate and evaluate the information that you want and, ultimately, how to use the information after you have found it.
3) You will need to locate and synthesize all the relevant literature on a particular topic to develop a more general explanation or a theory to explain certain phenomena. The major problem of literature reviews is how all those studies can be related to one another in an effective way
4) Thus, relate studies by similarities and differences in theoretical frameworks, problem statements, methodologies (participants, instruments, treatments, designs, and statistical analyses), and findings. Results are then determined by counting votes. This procedure is most easily accomplished through use of a summary sheet, such as the one in table 2.1, p.30)
Easy tools include MS Excel and Database
Research Methods in Physical Activity

6. Identifying the Problem
The literature review is essential in identifying the specific problem.
The final statement of the problem, questions, and hypotheses cannot be written until the literature is reviewed and the study is situated in the previous literature.
After locating a series of studies, the first task is to decide which studies are related to the topic area
After a few key studies are identified, a careful reading usually produces several ideas and unresolved questions.
…Your review will lead you to an understanding of “What we know” vs. “What we don’t know” in the literature. This observation will help you to formulate the “problem” statement for your research.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

7. Developing Hypothesis or Questions
Hypotheses are deduced from theory or induced from other empirical studies and real-world observations. These hypotheses are based on logical reasoning and, when predictive of the study’s outcome, are labeled research hypotheses.
The precursor to a hypothesis is a research problem, usually framed as a question. It might ask what, or why, something is happening.
One of the tenets behind science is that any scientific hypothesis and resultant experimental design must be inherently falsifiable. In its basic form, falsifiability is the belief that for any hypothesis to have credence, it must be inherently disprovable before it can become accepted scientific proof. For example, if a scientist asks, “Does God exist?” then this can never be science because it is a theory that cannot be disproved. The idea is that no theory is completely correct, but if not falsified, it can be accepted as truth.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

8. Developing The Method
1) The method is designed to answer the hypothesis. If the method is planned and pilot-tested appropriately, the outcome of the study allows the hypotheses and questions to be evaluated.
2) The review of literature can be extremely helpful in identifying methods that have been successfully used to solve particular types of problems.
3) Valuable elements from other studies may include the characteristics of the participants, data collection instruments and testing procedures, treatments, designs, and statistical analyses. Don’t reinvent the wheel.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

9. The Literature Review Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary sources — Firsthand source of data in research; the original study. Primary sources are ultimately the most valuable for the researcher in that the information is firsthand. Most primary sources in a literature review are journal articles.
Secondary sources - Source of data in research in which an author has evaluated and summarized previous research. May be easier to read than primary sources and will may assist you in locating the primary source
Research Methods in Physical Activity

10. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
You should follow six steps when reviewing the literature. Performing these steps ensures thoroughness and makes the search more productive. The steps are:
Write the Problem Statement
Consult Secondary Sources
Determine Descriptors
Search Preliminary Sources
Read and Record the Literature
Write the Literature Review
Details to follow….
Research Methods in Physical Activity

11. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
Write the Problem Statement
At this point, you are merely trying to specify what research questions you are asking.
By carefully defining the research problem, the researcher can keep the literature search within reasonable limits. Remember, the problem statement, questions, and hypotheses may change based on the search. Write the statement as completely (but concisely) as you can
The problem statement is designed to answer an “unknown” question based upon your review of the literature.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

12. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
2) Consult Secondary Sources
This step is not essential if you are very knowledgeable about the subject area.
Reviews are helpful, and secondary sources such as textbooks and encyclopedias are helpful if you have limited knowledge about a topic and can profit from a summary of previous research.
Use of Specialized Encyclopedias (Examples are the Encyclopedia of Sport Sciences and Medicine; Encyclopedia of Physical Fitness; Encyclopedia of Physical Education, Fitness and Sports; Encyclopedia of Educational Research; and Handbook of Research on Teaching.), provide an overview of information on research topics and summarize knowledge about subject areas. Be aware that the information in these publications are dated.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

13. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
2) Consult Secondary Sources
Reviews of research are an excellent source of information for three reasons:
♦ Some knowledgeable person has spent a great deal of time and effort in compiling the latest literature on the topic.
♦The author has not only found the relevant literature but also critically reviewed and synthesized it into an integrated summary of what is known about the area.
♦The reviewer often suggests areas of needed research.
Examples of Review Sources:
Annual Reviews of Medicine, Annual Review of Psychology, Review of Educational Research, Physiological Reviews, Psychological Review, and Exercise and Sport Science Reviews. These sources, such as Annual Review of Psychology and Physiological Reviews, are available electronically and in print.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

14. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
3) Determine Descriptors (Key Words)
Descriptors (Key Words) are terms that help locate sources pertaining to a topic.
The combination of descriptors helps the researcher pinpoint pertinent related literature.
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Preliminary sources primarily consist of abstracts and indexes.
Abstracts are concise summaries of research studies are valuable sources of information.
Abstracts of papers presented at research meetings are available at national, district, and most state conventions.
Abstracts for scholarly articles in print are also listed in online search engines
Other abstract sources are Dissertation Abstracts International, and Index and Abstracts of Foreign Physical Education Literature
Research Methods in Physical Activity

15. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Indexes - Several indexes provide references to magazine and journal articles concerning specific topics.
♦ Index Medicus - Widely used in exercise science, Index Medicus provides access to more than 2,500 biomedical journals around the world. Index Medicus can also be searched by computer through MEDLINE
♦ PsycINFO. - A computer index in the field of behavioral science, PsycINFO selects keywords and lists appropriate titles, identifying authors and journals.
♦ ERIC - The acronym ERIC stands for Educational Resources Information Center. It is the world’s largest source of education information. The ERIC system collects, sorts, classifies, and stores thousands of documents on various topics concerning education and related fields. Its basic indexes are Resources in Education (RIE) and Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE). Besides containing the abstracts, RIE provides information on how you can obtain a document
Research Methods in Physical Activity

16. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Indexes - Several indexes provide references to magazine and journal articles concerning specific topics.
♦ SPORTDiscus – The SPORTDiscus index is a valuable resource for both practical and research literature on sport, physical fitness, and physical education topics. Topics include sports medicine, exercise psychology, biomechanics, psychology, training, coaching, physical education and fitness, and other sport- and fitness-related topics.
Bibliographies - Bibliographies list books and articles about specific topics. They come in many forms, depending on how the information is listed. All contain the authors, titles of books or articles, journal names, and publishing information. An annotated bibliography has a brief description of the nature and scope of the article or book included with each reference.
A good search strategy is to look for the most recent sources of information and then work backward. You will save much time by consulting the most recent studies, and you will profit from the searches of others.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

17. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Computer Search - Computer service facilities can greatly expedite the literature search. Automated searching provides more effective and efficient access to indexes and information than does manual searching
write down the key words that describe the topic and save them for the initial aspects of the search. An effective way to find productive keywords or subject terms is to find one or more journal articles pertaining to your topic and see how they are indexed.
become familiar with multiple computerized databases will assist in your search.
most databases now permit users to save, , and print information. In addition, many databases will show the history of changes during a session. Keeping notes on the files saved and changes made during a search is helpful. It may be particularly helpful to have a folder on your computer where you save the list of marked articles from the search.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

18. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Computer Search -
Boolean operators (hyperlink) - The scope of your search can be narrowed or broadened by using special words called Boolean operators. The two most common operators, or connectors, are the words and / or.
To narrow the search, you add another term with the word “and.”
The word “or” broadens the search. Additional related terms can be connected with or so that the computer searches for more than one descriptor (see figure 2.4, p. 38, text)
The Citadel Library Indexes and Databases
Research Methods in Physical Activity

19. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Obtaining Primary Sources-
Many electronic databases have abstracts in addition to the bibliographic information. The abstract is extremely helpful in making the decision about whether the article is worth retrieving.
Most journals are available in electronic form.
Your library may not have all the journals that are on the list of references. You must consult your library’s information system to see whether your library carries a particular journal.
Using the Internet -
A great deal of information may be found online when searching the Internet. The correctness and accuracy of information, however, are often difficult to verify. In fact, much of it is wrong and misleading. Separating the good and valid ones from the useless and biased ones is difficult.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

20. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Using the Internet -
There are several sites that will consistently contain useful information on topics found on the internet.
♦ Scout Report ( is a joint project from the National Science Foundation and the University of Wisconsin at Madison. It includes a considerable amount of useful scientific information on the biological sciences; physical sciences; and math, engineering, and technology.
♦ SOSIG stands for the Social Science Information Gateway ( ) and connects to more than 50,000 social science web pages.
♦ The Virtual Library ( ) is organized using the Library of Congress subject headings. Headings include agriculture, business and economics, computing, communications and media, education, engineering, humanities, international affairs, law, recreation, regional studies, science, and society.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

21. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
4) Search Preliminary Sources
Personal Computers -
You can access library sources and conduct literature searches from your own personal computers.
Use PC software for storing bibliographic entries, abstracts, and even reprints of studies in the form of .pdf files. A number of commercial programs are available for this purpose (e.g., EndNote, ProCite , and Reference Manager). After the bibliographic information and notes have been entered, the information can be retrieved by the use of pertinent keywords, author names, or journal names
Each new entry is automatically stored in alphabetical order, and the complete bibliography is always instantly accessible. Linking .pdf files of articles directly to the notes is easy, and additional information can be found quickly.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

22. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
5) Read and Record the Literature
You must read, understand, and record the relevant information from the literature.
As a researcher, should note the following information from research studies that you read:
♦ Statement of the problem (and maybe hypotheses)
♦ Characteristics of the participants
♦ Instruments and tests used (including reliability and validity information if provided)
♦ Testing procedures
♦ Independent and dependent variables
♦ Treatments applied to participants (if an experimental study)
♦ Design and statistical analyses
♦ Findings
♦ Questions raised for further study
♦ Citations to other relevant studies not located
*** Use MS Excel or Data base to store and sort the above, with bibliography links
Research Methods in Physical Activity

23. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
Write the Literature Review
The literature review has three basic parts:
Introduction
Body
Summary and conclusions
The introduction should explain the purpose of the review and the how and why of its organization.
The body of the review should be organized around important topics.
Finally, the review should summarize important implications and suggest directions for future research.
The purpose of the literature review is to show that there is a purpose and a need to address the stated problem
Research Methods in Physical Activity

24. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH
Write the Literature Review
The purpose of the literature review is to:
show that there is a purpose and a need to address the stated problem
show that you have a comprehensive and complete understanding of the literature reviewed, that is, that you know and understand what other people have done and how that research relates to and supports what you plan to do.
The Introduction to the Review
The introduction to the review (or to topical areas within the review) is important. If these paragraphs are not interesting, the reader may skip the entire section. Attempt to attract the reader’s attention by identifying in a provocative way the important points to be covered.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

25. STEPS IN THE LITERATURE SEARCH Write the Literature Review
The body of the literature review requires considerable attention. Relevant research must be organized, synthesized, and written in a clear, concise, and interesting way.
The literature review should be organized around important topics. These topics serve as subheadings in the paper to direct the reader’s attention. The best way to organize the topics and the information within topics is to develop an outline. You should first develop a basic outline, then a detailed or annotated outline.
Keep the written language simple, concise, and clear. Avoid jargon !! (see Table 2.3, p 47 text ). One thought per paragraph.
Completeness (not in the sense of the length of the review but rather of reference completeness) is the other important aspect of the literature review. You should demonstrate to your committee that you have located, read, and understood all the related literature.
Read, and have others read your writing.
Research Methods in Physical Activity

26. END OF PRESENTATION
Research Methods in Physical Activity