1. Decision Making and Relevant Information
Chapter 11

2. Introduction This chapter explores the decision-making process.
It focuses on specific decisions such as accepting or rejecting a one-time-only special order, insourcing or outsourcing products or services, and replacing or keeping equipment.

3. Learning Objectives
Use the five-step decision process to make decisions
Differentiate relevant costs and revenues from irrelevant costs and revenues in any decision situation
Distinguish between quantitative factors and qualitative factors in decisions

4. Learning Objectives
Identify two potential problems that should be avoided in relevant-cost analysis
Describe the opportunity cost concept and explain why it is used in decision making
Describe the key concept in choosing which among multiple products to produce when there are capacity constraints

5. Learning Objectives
Discuss the key factor managers must consider when adding or dropping customers and segments
Explain why the book value of equipment is irrelevant in equipment-replacement decisions
Explain how conflicts can arise between the decision model used by a manager and the performance model used to evaluate the manager

6. Use the five-step decision process to make decisions
Learning Objective 1
Use the five-step decision process to make decisions

7. Information and the Decision Process
A decision model is a formal method for making a choice, often involving quantitative and qualitative analysis.

8. Five-Step Decision Process
Gathering information
Making predictions
Choosing an alternative
Implementing the decision
Evaluating performance

9. Learning Objective 2
Differentiate relevant costs and revenues from irrelevant costs and revenues in any decision situation

10. The Meaning of Relevance
Relevant costs and relevant revenues are expected future costs and revenues that differ among alternative courses of action.

11. The Meaning of Relevance
Historical costs are irrelevant to a decision but are used as a basis for predicting future costs.
Sunk costs are past costs which are unavoidable.

12. The Meaning of Relevance
Differential income (net relevant income) is the difference in total operating income when choosing between two alternatives.
Differential costs (net relevant costs) are the difference in total costs between two alternatives.

13. Learning Objective 3
Distinguish between quantitative factors and qualitative factors in decisions

14. Quantitative and Qualitative Relevant Information
Quantitative factors are outcomes that are measured in numerical terms:
Financial
Nonfinancial
Qualitative factors are outcomes that cannot be measured in numerical terms.

15. One-Time-Only Special Order
Gabriela & Co. manufactures fancy bath towels in Boone, North Carolina.
The plant has a production capacity of 44,000 towels each month.
Current monthly production is 30,000 towels.
The assumption is made that costs can be classified as either variable with respect to units of output or fixed.

16. One-Time-Only Special Order
Variable Fixed Costs Costs Per Unit Per Unit Direct materials $6.50 $ Direct labor Manufacturing costs Total $8.50 $5.00

17. One-Time-Only Special Order
Total fixed direct manufacturing labor amounts to $45,000.
Total fixed overhead is $105,000.
Marketing costs per unit are $7 ($5 of which is variable).
What is the full cost per towel?

18. One-Time-Only Special Order
Variable ($ $5.00): $13.50
Fixed:
Total $20.50
A hotel in Puerto Rico has offered to buy 5,000 towels from Gabriela & Co. at $11.50 per towel for a total of $57,500.

19. One-Time-Only Special Order
No marketing costs will be incurred for this one-time-only special order.
Should Gabriela & Co. accept this order?
Yes!
Why?

20. One-Time-Only Special Order
The relevant costs of making the towels are $42,500.
$8.50 × 5,000 = $42,500 incremental costs
$57,500 – $42,500 = $15,000 incremental revenues
$11.50 – $8.50 = $3.00 contribution margin per towel

21. One-Time-Only Special Order
Decision criteria:
Accept the order if the revenue differential is greater than the cost differential.

22. Learning Objective 4
Identify two potential problems that should be avoided in relevant-cost analysis

23. Potential Problems in Relevant-Cost Analysis
General assumptions:
Do not assume that all variable costs are relevant.
Do not assume that all fixed costs are irrelevant.

24. Potential Problems in Relevant-Cost Analysis
Unit-cost data can potentially mislead decision makers:
Irrelevant costs are included.
The same unit costs are used at different output levels.

25. Insourcing versus Outsourcing
Outsourcing is the process of purchasing goods and services from outside vendors rather than producing goods or providing services within the organization, which is called insourcing.

26. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Decisions about whether to outsource or produce within the organization are often called make-or-buy decisions.
The most important factors in the make-or-buy decision are quality, dependability of supplies, and costs.

27. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Gabriela & Co. also manufactures bath accessories.
Management is considering producing a part it needs (#2) or using a part produced by Alec Enterprises.

28. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Gabriela & Co. has the following costs for 150,000 units of Part #2:
Direct materials $ 28, Direct labor , Mixed overhead , Variable overhead , Fixed overhead , Total $120,500

29. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Mixed overhead consists of material handling and setup costs.
Gabriela & Co. produces the 150,000 units in 100 batches of 1,500 units each.
Total material handling and setup costs equal fixed costs of $9,000 plus variable costs of $200 per batch.

30. Make-or-Buy Decisions
What is the cost per unit for Part #2?
$120,500 ÷ 150,000 units = $0.8033/unit
Alec Enterprises offers to sell the same part for $0.55.
Should Gabriela & Co. manufacture the part or buy it from Alec Enterprises?

31. Make-or-Buy Decisions
The answer depends on the difference in expected future costs between the alternatives.
Gabriela & Co. anticipates that next year the 150,000 units of Part #2 expected to be sold will be manufactured in 150 batches of 1,000 units each.

32. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Variable costs per batch are expected to decrease to $100.
Gabriela & Co. plans to continue to produce 150,000 next year at the same variable manufacturing costs per unit as this year.
Fixed costs are expected to remain the same as this year.

33. Make-or-Buy Decisions
What is the variable manufacturing cost per unit?
Direct material $28, Direct labor , Variable overhead 15, Total $61,500
$61,500 ÷ 150,000 = $0.41 per unit

34. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Expected relevant cost to make Part #2:
Manufacturing $61,500 Material handling and setups 15,000* Total relevant cost to make $76,500 *150 × $100 = $15,000
Cost to buy: (150,000 × $0.55) $82,500
Gabriela & Co. will save $6,000 by making the part.

35. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Now assume that the $9,000 in fixed clerical salaries to support material handling and setup will not be incurred if Part #2 is purchased from Alec Enterprises.
Should Gabriela & Co. buy the part or make the part?

36. Make-or-Buy Decisions
Relevant cost to make:
Variable $76, Fixed , Total $85,500
Cost to buy: $82,500
Gabriela would save $3,000 by buying the part.

37. Learning Objective 5
Describe the opportunity cost concept and explain why it is used in decision making

38. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Assume that if Gabriela buys the part from Alec Enterprises, it can use the facilities previously used to manufacture Part #2 to produce Part #3 for Krysta’s Company.
The expected additional future operating income is $18,000.
What should Gabriela & Co. do?

39. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Gabriela & Co. has three options:
Make Part #2 and do not make Part #3 for Krysta.
Buy Part #2 and do not make Part #3 for Krysta.
Buy the part and use the facilities to produce Part #3 for Krysta.

40. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Expected cost of obtaining 150,000 parts:
Buy Part #2 Buy Part # and do not and make Make make Part #3 Part #3 Part # $82,500 $64,500* $76,500
*$82,500 – $18,000 = $64,500

41. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Opportunity cost is the contribution to income that is foregone (rejected) by not using a limited resource in its next-best alternative use.

42. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Opportunity costs are not recorded in formal accounting records since they do not generate cash outlays.
These costs also are not ordinarily incorporated into formal reports.

43. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
The opportunity cost of holding inventory is the income forgone from tying up money in inventory and not investing it elsewhere.

44. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Carrying costs of inventory can be a significant opportunity cost and should be incorporated into decisions regarding lot purchase sizes for materials.

45. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Assume that annual estimated Part #2 requirements for next year is 150,000.
Cost per purchase order is $40.
Cost per unit when each purchase is of 1,500 units = $0.55.
Cost per unit when each purchase is equal to or greater than 150,000 = $0.54.

46. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Average investment in inventory is either:
(1,500 x .55) ÷ 2 = $ or
(150,000 x $0.54) = $40,500
Annual interest rate for investment in government bonds is 6%.
$ × .06 = $24.75
$40,500 × .06 = $2,430

47. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Option A: Make 100 purchases of 1,500 units:
Purchase order costs: (100 × $40) $ 4,000.00
Purchase costs: (150,000 × $0.55) 82,500.00
Annual interest income that could be earned:
Relevant costs $86,524.75

48. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
Option B: Make 1 purchase of 150,000 units:
Purchase order costs: (1 × $40) $
Purchase costs: (150,000 × $0.54) 81,000
Annual interest income that could be earned: ,430
Relevant costs: $83,470

49. Opportunity Costs, Outsourcing, and Constraints
In this case purchasing all 150,000 units at the beginning of the year is preferred.
Why?
The higher purchase and ordering costs exceeds the lower opportunity cost of holding smaller inventory.

50. Learning Objective 6
Describe the key concept in choosing which among multiple products to produce when there are capacity constraints

51. Product-Mix Decisions Under Capacity Constraints
What product should be emphasized to maximize operating income in the face of capacity constraints?
Gabriela & Co. produces Product #2 and Product #3.
The company has 3,000 machine hours available to produce these products.

52. Product-Mix Decisions Under Capacity Constraints
Decision criteria: Aim for the highest contribution margin per unit of the constraining factor.
When multiple constraints exist, optimization techniques such as linear programming can be used in making decisions.

53. Product-Mix Decisions Under Capacity Constraints
Per unit Product #2 Product #3 Sales price $2.11 $14.50 Variable expenses Contribution margin $1.70 $ 0.60
Contribution margin ratio % %

54. Product-Mix Decisions Under Capacity Constraints
One unit of Prod. #2 requires 7 machine hours.
One unit of Prod. #3 requires 2 machine hours.
What is the contribution of each product per machine hour?
Product #2: $1.70 ÷ 7 = $0.24
Product #3: $0.60 ÷ 2 = $0.30

55. Product-Mix Decisions Under Capacity Constraints
Which product should be emphasized?
The product with the highest contribution margin per unit of the constraining resource.

56. Learning Objective 7
Discuss the key factor managers must consider when adding or dropping customers and segments

57. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Companies must often make decisions about adding or discontinuing a product line, branch, or business segment.
Companies must also make decisions about adding or dropping customers.

58. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Blowing Rock Furniture supplies specialized furniture to two local retailers – Stevens and Cohen.
Blowing Rock Furniture has a monthly capacity of 3,000 machine hours.
Fixed costs are allocated on the basis of revenues.

59. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Stevens Cohen Revenues $200,000 $100, Variable costs , , Fixed costs , , Total operating costs $170,000 $110, Operating income $ 30,000 $ (10,000) Machine-hours required , ,000

60. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Total Revenues $300, Variable costs , Fixed costs , Total operating costs $280, Operating income $ 20, Machine-hours required ,000

61. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Should Blowing Rock Furniture drop the Cohen business, assuming that dropping Cohen would decrease its total fixed costs by 10%?
New fixed costs would be: $150,000 – $15,000 = $135,000

62. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Stevens Alone Revenues $200, Variable costs , Fixed costs , Total operating costs $205, Operating income $ (5,000) Machine-hours required ,000

63. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Cohen’s business is providing a contribution margin of $40,000.
$40,000 decrease in contribution margin – $15,000 decrease in fixed costs = $25,000 decrease in operating income.

64. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
Assume that if Blowing Rock Furniture drops Cohen’s business it can lease the excess capacity to the Perez Corporation for $50,000.
Fixed costs would not decrease.
Should Blowing Rock Furniture lease to Perez?

65. Profitability, Activity-Based Costing, and Relevant Costs
$50,000 would be Blowing Rock Furniture’s opportunity cost of continuing serving Cohen.
The $50,000 offsets the $40,000 contribution of Cohen’s business.

66. Learning Objective 8
Explain why the book value of equipment is irrelevant in equipment-replacement decisions

67. Equipment-Replacement Decisions
Assume that Gabriela & Co. is considering replacing a cutting machine with a newer model.
The new machine is more efficient than the old machine.
Revenues will be unaffected.

68. Equipment-Replacement Decisions
Existing Replacement Machine Machine Original cost $80, $105,000 Useful life years years Accumulated depreciation $50, Book value $30, Disposal price $14, Annual costs $46, $ 10,000

69. Equipment-Replacement Decisions
Ignoring the time value of money and income taxes, should Gabriela replace the existing machine?
Yes!
The cost savings per year are $36,000.
The cost savings over a 4-year period will be $36,000 × 4 = $144,000.

70. Equipment-Replacement Decisions
Investment = $105,000 – $14,000 = $91,000
$144,000 – $91,000 = $53,000 advantage of the replacement machine.

71. Irrelevance of Past Costs
The book value of existing equipment is irrelevant since it is neither a future cost nor does it differ among any alternatives (sunk costs never differ).

72. Irrelevance of Past Costs
The disposal price of old equipment and the purchase cost of new equipment are relevant costs and revenues because...
they are future costs or revenues that differ between alternatives to be decided upon.

73. Learning Objective 9
Explain how conflicts can arise between the decision model used by a manager and the performance model used to evaluate the manager

74. Decisions and Performance Evaluation
What is the journal entry to sell the existing machine?
Cash 14, Accumulated Depreciation 50, Loss on disposal 16, Machine ,000

75. Decisions and Performance Evaluation
In the real world would the manager replace the machine?
An important factor in replacement decisions is the manager’s perceptions of whether the decision model is consistent with how the manager’s performance is judged.

76. Decisions and Performance Evaluation
Managers often behave consistent with their short-run interests and favor the alternative that yields best performance measures in the short run.
When conflicting decisions are generated, managers tend to favor the performance evaluation model.

77. Decisions and Performance Evaluation
Top management faces a challenge – that is, making sure that the performance-evaluation model of subordinate managers is consistent with the decision model.

78. End of Chapter 11