1. How were the Warlords finally defeated? L/O – To examine how the United Front of the KMT and CCP defeated the Warlords Chiang Kai-shek 蒋介石 Sun Yat-sen 孫文

2. How were the Warlords defeated? The New Culture and May Fourth Movement was a response to the failure of republican government and fed upon the anger felt by many during the Warlord Period. After May Fourth, many became attracted by the ideology of Marxism as a way to restore China. This led to the creation of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and reorganisation of the KMT in 1919. Both joined together to form the ‘United Front’ in 1922. Together they launched the ‘Northern Expedition’ in 1926. By 1928, the Warlords had been defeated despite the fact that Chiang Kai-shek purged the Communists from the United Front in 1927.

3. The Appeal of Marxism Many intellectuals lost faith in the West after the Versailles pronouncement on Shandong. The May Fourth Movement led to a re-evaluation of Western ideas. Many intellects like Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao became attracted to Marxism – it rejected the traditions of the Chinese past AND the Western domination of the present. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the Leninist theory of imperialism and the Soviet offer of friendship to China boosted Marxism’s appeal. Li Dazhao 李大钊 Chen Duxiu 陈独秀

4. The Appeal of Marxism Firstly, Moscow announced in 1918 that it would renounce all the old Tsarist special rights and privileges that Russia held in China. This unilateral expression of friendship was well received in China. Secondly, Lenin’s theory on imperialism was persuasive to Chinese radicals – it blamed the West for China’s ills and predicted the demise of the West and rise of Asia. By 1919, Marxism-Leninism study groups sprang-up across China. The National University of Peking became a hotbed of radicalism. Vladimir Lenin Ленин Karl Marx in 1875

5. The Role of Li Dazhao & Chen Duxiu By mid-1918, the radical librarian of the National University of Beijing – Li Dazhao – had converted to Marxism. He founded the ‘New Tide Society’ in Autumn 1918, later renaming it ‘The Marxist Research Society’. He also wrote for New Youth magazine, editing a whole issue on Marxism in 1919. Li’s library office became known as the ‘Red Chamber’. He attracted a number of young followers – Qu Qiubai, Zhang Guotao and Mao Zedong all became future leaders of the CCP. Li Dazhao 李大钊 Zhang Guotao 张国焘 Qu Qiubai 瞿秋白 Mao Zedong 毛泽东

6. The Role of Li Dazhao & Chen Duxiu Chen Duxiu was the founder of ‘New Youth’ in 1915. He was also Dean of the National University of Beijing. Here he was introduced to Marxism by Li Dazhao. Chen was forced to resign from the university by conservative staff and was jailed for 3 months for distributing inflammatory literature in June 1919. Chen moved to Shanghai, creating the ‘Marxist Study Society’ in May 1920 and ‘Socialist Youth Corps’ in August 1920. Chen Duxiu 陈独秀

7. The Role of Li Dazhao & Chen Duxiu In December 1919, Li Dazhao’s Marxist Research Society was replaced by the ‘Society for the Study of Socialism’. He then merged with other groups to form ‘Beijing Society for the Study of Marxist Theory’ in March 1920. By 1920, two distinct Marxists groups had formed in China. In 1920, the COMINTERN agent, Grigori Voitinsky arrived in China. He met with Li in Beijing and Chen in Shanghai, helping them to establish the Chinese Communist Party. Li Dazhao 李大钊 Grigori Voitinsky 维经斯基

8. Birth of the Chinese Communist Party In July 1921, the first Congress of the CCP was held in Shanghai, at a girls boarding school in the French concession. 12 Delegates attended including Mao Zedong. They decided to establish the Central Party Headquarters in Shanghai. Li and Chen were named as co-founders of the CCP and Chen was elected as the first General Secretary. However splits soon emerged over the direction of the Party.

10. Splits in the Early CCP Chen Duxiu – subscribed to European Marxism’s emphasis on the workers and showed disdain toward the peasants. He believed urban elements should spearhead the movement. Li Dazhao – stressed the importance of the peasantry to lead the revolution, as they made up more than 90% of the population and agriculture was still the basis of the national economy. Li Dazhao 李大钊 Chen Duxiu 陈独秀

11. Splits in the Early CCP The early CCP supported Chen’s views and Chen’s base in Shanghai was made the Central Party Headquarters. However Li’s views provided a powerful alternative to other communists like Mao Zedong. Mao was inspired by Li’s populist and nationalistic views on the role of the peasants. Li was executed by Warlord Zhang Zuolin in 1927 however Mao carried on his mentor’s ideas. Mao Zedong 毛泽东 Zhang Zuolin 张作霖

12. Reorganisation of the Nationalist Party Since 1912, Sun Yat-sen had faced disappointment in his attempts to create a lasting democratic government. He created the Chinese Nationalist Party or ‘Kuomintang’ ( 国民党 ) in 1919 but faced obstruction from southern warlords in his attempt to grow the movement. He was also disappointed by the lack of support and insincerity from the West, especially after the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Sun Yat-sen 孫文

13. Reorganisation of the Nationalist Party Like the Marxists, Sun became inspired by the successful Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 – it illustrated what strict discipline and strong party organisation could do. He was also inspired by the founding of the CCP, with its strong ties with labour and agrarian organisations. Sun resolved to reorganise the KMT on the Soviet Model and sought Soviet aid for the National Revolution.

14. Creation of the First United Front In Spring 1921 the Dutch Comintern agent, H. Maring, met with Sun in Guangxi province ( 广西 ). He was impressed by Sun and urged the CCP to join with the KMT. In August 1922, Chen and Li gave into pressure from the Comintern and permitted individual communists to join the KMT. On September 4 th, Nationalists leaders agreed with Sun’s policy of ‘Alliance with the Soviets; admission of the Communists’ – the United Front was created. Henk Sneevliet code-named ‘H. Maring’

15. Why did Sun agree to the United Front? 1.Sun felt that all Chinese classes had a right to participate in the National Revolution 2.He wanted to utilise the CCP’s ties with labour & agrarian organisations 3.Needed Soviet aid to reorganise the KMT 4.Believed that the independent growth of the CCP would undermine his own cause 5.Worried that Soviet aid might go to rival warlords. Sun Yat-sen 孫文

16. Who held power within the United Front? Chen Duxiu feared that joining the KMT might corrupt communists. Only individual communists were allowed to join and the CCP remained independent. However the Russian Comintern realised that the KMT had more widespread support. They sought to use the KMT and eventually take over from within. However Communists joining the KMT had to submit themselves to KMT rules and discipline, and Sun’s 3 Principles remained the core ideology. Chen Duxiu 陈独秀 Sun Yat-sen 孫文

17. Who held power within the United Front? Despite their junior position, Sun failed to realise the full implications of CCP admittance: Sun was idealistic and believed the Comintern would help him control the CCP. He hoped individual CCP members would be submerged within the KMT. He failed to realise that Moscow really wanted to take over the Party from within. Sun Yat-sen 孫文

18. How did the USSR help the United Front? With the United Front created, the Soviets sent Mikhail Borodin to help Sun reorganise the KMT. General Galen and 40 other advisors were also sent to help train the Party army. In return, Sun sent the young General Chiang Kai-shek to study the Soviet Military System in Moscow in August 1923. Chiang returned after 3 months and was commissioned by Sun to found the Whampoa Military Academy outside Canton. The USSR supplied money and weapons. Mikhail Borodin Vasily Blyukher code-named ‘Galen’ Chiang Kai-shek 蒋介石

19. Chiang Kai-shek and Sun Yat-sen at the founding of the Whampoa Military Academy

20. The Death of Sun Yat-sen On 12 th March 1925, Sun Yat-sen died. Political control of the KMT passed to the left-wing Wang Jingwei and the right-wing Hu Hanmin. Military power resided with Chiang Kai- shek, superintended of the Whampoa Military Academy. Under Chiang, the cadets from Whampoa became a strong force, bringing under control rebel provincial governors like Chen Jiongming in the southwest. Wang Jingwei 汪精卫 Chiang and Hu Hanmin 胡汉民 Chen Jiongming 陈炯明

21. The Death of Sun Yat-sen On 1 st July 1925 the Nationalist Government was proclaimed in Canton, in parallel with the Beijing government in the north. Wang Jingwei was appointed President of this KMT government. Chiang was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of the ‘National Revolutionary Army’. By February 1926, all opposition to the KMT in the southern provinces had been crushed. Chiang was given the task of launching the ‘Northern Expedition’ to reunify China. Wang Jingwei 汪精卫 Chiang Kai-shek 蒋介石

22. The Northern Expedition On 27 th June 1926 Chiang Kai-shek set out with 6,000 Whampoa Officers and 85,000 troops. The Northern Expedition had begun. Chiang’s objectives were to destroy the power of the warlords. He targeted: 1.Zhili Warlord Wu Peifu who controlled Henan, Hubei and parts of Zhili and Hunan. 2.Fengtien Warlord Zhang Zuolin who was the ‘Generalissimo of Beijing’ and ruled Manchuria, Zhili and Shandong. 3.Sun Chuanfang who was an independent warlord controlling Nanjing, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujien, Jiangxi and Anhui. Wu Peifu 吴佩孚 Zhang Zuolin 张作霖 Sun Chuanfang 孙传芳

23. The Northern Expedition Strengthened by Soviet supplies, the National Revolution Army advanced with rapid speed. Communists agents helped by mobilising peasant and worker support, fermenting strikes and sabotage in areas precipitating major attacks by the KMT. They took Wuhan in September 1926, Nanchang in November, Fuzhou in December, Shanghai and Nanjing in March 1927 – within 9 months, the Southern half of China had been completely captured!

26. The Breakdown of the United Front However the United Front soon broke down. CCP members formed a secret bloc within the KMT, influencing the direction of the Party. The left-wing of the Party at Canton called a Second National Congress in January 1926. Communists won new memberships in the Party hierarchy. In response, the right-wing ‘Western Hill’ faction set up their own party headquarters in Shanghai – the KMT was now split into rival factions.

27. The Zhongshan Warship Incident Relations worsened further after the ‘Warship Zhongshan Incident’ ( 中山舰 事件 ) on 20 th March 1926. Under Communist influence, the captain of the Zhongshan attempted to kidnap Chiang Kai-shek. It failed and Chiang used the incident to dismiss all Soviet advisors from the First Army. Throughout 1926, the KMT Central Executive Committee passed a number of resolutions limiting Communist influence – Stalin ordered the CCP to comply. Chiang Kai-shek 蒋介石

28. Growing Splits within the KMT On 1 st January 1927, the KMT decided to move the government from Canton to Wuhan. The Wuhan government was dominated by Borodin and the KMT left-wing led by Wang Jingwei. Ordered by Stalin, the Communists began intensifying their work amongst the peasants in Central China. Chiang Kai-shek was busy setting up power bases in Shanghai and Nanjing. With the support of the right-wing and financial circles in Shanghai, Chiang became more determined to persecute the Communists. Wang Jingwei 汪精卫 Mikhail Borodin

29. The Shanghai Massacre ( 四 · 一二 清黨 ) On April 12 th 1927, Chiang launched a purge of all Communists from the Party. Nationalist troops, police and secret agents raided Communist cells, shot down suspects and eliminated Communist labour unions. It began with a massacre of over 300 Communists in Shanghai but also spread to Nanjing, Canton and other areas. In response, the Wang’s Wuhan-based KMT government dismissed Chiang as commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang ignored this, forming his own Nationalist government at Nanjing.

30. Defeat of the Left-Wing KMT Having now split, Wang’s left-wing KMT under the influence of Borodin and the Communists launched its own ‘Second Northern Expedition’ against Beijing. It was successful at first but ultimately ground to a halt. The warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan switched support to Chiang Kai-shek as the ‘true nationalist government’. Wang Jingwei, the President of the Wuhan KMT, then fell out with the Communists after being shown a telegram from Stalin, calling for the Communists to take over. Feng Yuxiang 冯玉祥 Yan Xishan 阎锡山

31. Reconciliation of the KMT Realising the threat posed by the Communists, on 26 th July 1927 Wang ordered all Communists to leave the KMT party unless they resigned their CCP membership. The finally split came after the failed Communist Nanchang Uprising ( 南昌起义 )on 1 st August 1927. In response Wang ordered the all-out liquidation of the Communists. The Nanjing and Wuhan KMT then reconciled on 10 th December. Chiang was reappointed commander-in-chief. The Wuhan government dissolved itself in February 1928, with Wang fleeing to Europe. Wang Jingwei 汪精卫 Zhou Enlai 周恩来 Leader of the failed Nanchang Uprising

32. Reunification of China With the help of Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan, Chiang marched on Beijing in June 1928. The self-styled ‘Generalissimo’ of Beijing – Zhang Zuolin – fled to Manchuria where he was killed in a ‘train explosion’ engineered by the Japanese on 4 th June 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, pledged allegiance to the Nationalist Government. By January 1929, most of China had be re- united by Chiang Kai-shek who was made President, with a new capital at Nanjing. This ushered in a decade of Nationalist rule in China. Zhang Zoulin 张作霖 Zhang Xueliang 張學良

33. Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2009) Compare and contrast the aims and policies of the Communists and the Nationalists in China during the First United Front established in 1924 (20 marks) Candidates will probably conclude that each party had its own agenda but a common immediate purpose; the defeat of the warlords and the establishment of a unified government for China. However, they differed as to the ultimate form of that government. Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai Shek) used the Communists’ support among the peasantry and workers to gain popular support for the military drive to the north. The Communists used the opportunities created by the northern advance to spread their ideology among the people. With the capture of Shanghai, Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai Shek) and the Nationalists gained access to the wealth and influence of the powerful commercial classes and turned on the Communists. The Communists, on the other hand, had also their agenda of social revolution in both town and country. The Nationalists struck first, but expect candidates to recognise that the programmes of the two parties were basically incompatible. Candidates may also note the role of Stalin and the Comintern in support of the United Front, even after the events in Shanghai in 1927, and the role of factional leaders in both parties. N.B. [7 marks] maximum if only one party is discussed. [0 to 7 marks] maximum for a narrative account only. [8 to 10 marks] for a simple comparative account. [11 to 13 marks] for simple comparative analysis of the policies and aims of the two parties over the period. [14 to 16 marks] for detailed analysis of the ideologies and aims of the two parties and awareness of the changing relationship as the forces of the United Front advanced. [17+ marks] for running comparative analysis of the aims, policies and actions of the two parties showing awareness of the complexity of the situation.

34. Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2003) “Neither the Chinese Communist Party nor the Kuomintang entered the First United Front in 1923 believing that it would survive for very long.” How far do you agree with this assessment? (20 marks) Candidates may well agree. Award [7 marks] for a narrative of events leading to the creation of the United Front and to its collapse in 1927. For [8 to 10 marks] candidates should show awareness that the events of the period 1923 to 1927 may indicate the degree of sincerity with which each party joined the Front. For [11 to 13 marks] expect simple analysis and awareness of the unity of purpose against the warlords but also of the different agendas after the warlords were defeated. For [14 to 16 marks] this analysis should be more fully developed and support a conclusion. For [17+ marks] expect sophisticated analysis and discussion based upon historical evidence and covering the period leading up to the creation of the Front with recognition of the role of the Soviet advisers and the different agendas of the parties and of the factions and leaders within them.