1. Chapter 11 Vibrations and Waves
General Physics

2. Why it Matters?
Things wiggle, vibrate, shake, oscillate – even on an atomic level.
Like all motion, the motion of a vibrating object can be understood in light of Newton’s Laws of Motion.
Much of what we see and hear is only possible because of vibrations and waves.
We SEE the world because of light waves
We HEAR the world because of sound waves

3. Tapping Prior Knowledge
Elastic Potential Energy (PEe)
The energy stored in a stretched or compressed elastic object, such as a spring. Units - Joules
Gravitational Potential Energy (PEg)
The energy associated with an object due to its position relative to earth. Units - Joules
Spring Constant (k)
A parameter that expresses how resistant a spring is to being compressed or stretched. Units – N/m

4. Section 1 – Simple Harmonic Motion
Section Objectives:
Identify the conditions of simple harmonic motion.
Explain how force, velocity, and acceleration change as an object vibrates with simple harmonic motion
Calculate spring force using Hooke’s Law.

5. Hooke’s Law
One type of periodic motion is the motion of a mass attached to a spring.
The direction of the force acting on the mass (Felastic) is always opposite the direction of the mass’s displacement from equilibrium (x = 0). This is the restoring force.

6. Hooke’s Law cont. At equilibrium: At maximum displacement:
The spring force and the mass’s acceleration become zero.
The speed reaches a maximum.
At maximum displacement:
The spring force and the mass’s acceleration reach a maximum.
The speed becomes zero.

7. Hooke’s Law cont. Felastic = –(kx)
Measurements show that the spring force, or restoring force, is directly proportional to the displacement of the mass.
This relationship is known as Hooke’s Law:
Felastic = –(kx)
spring force = –(spring constant  displacement)
The quantity k is a positive constant called the spring constant.
This relationship was determined in 1678 by Robert Hooke.

8. Sample Problems
A scale with a spring constant of 420 N/m is compressed 4.3 cm. What is the spring force? (-18N)
A 669 N weight attached to a giant spring stretches it 6.5 cm. What is the spring constant? (1.0 x 104 N/m)

9. Simple Harmonic Motion
The motion of a vibrating mass-spring system is an example of simple harmonic motion.
Simple harmonic motion describes any periodic motion that is the result of a restoring force that is proportional to displacement.
Because simple harmonic motion involves a restoring force, every simple harmonic motion is a back-and-forth motion over the same path.
Damping is the tendency of a vibrating object to lose or to dissipate its energy over time.

10. Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion
Playground Swing
Wrecking Ball
Clock Pendulum
Trees
Skyscraper
Metronome
What is a Mechanical Metronome? (p. 367 in textbook)

11. Shock Absorbers
A stretched or compressed spring has elastic potential energy.
Spring shock absorbers on your vehicle are an excellent example of damped Simple Harmonic Motion.
Read “The Inside Story on Shock Absorbers”
(p. 372 in textbook)

12. The Simple Pendulum Simple Pendulum vs. Physical Pendulum
Simple Pendulum – mass is concentrated at 1 point, mass of string is negligible, no friction or air resistance is considered.
Physical Pendulum – distribution of mass is considered, friction and air resistance are considered.
Gravitational potential energy increases as a pendulum’s displacement from the equilibrium position increases.

13. The Simple Pendulum cont.
A simple pendulum consists of a mass called a bob, which is attached to a fixed string
At any displacement from equilibrium, the weight of the bob (Fg) can be resolved into two components.
The x component (Fg,x = Fg sin q) is the only force acting on the bob in the direction of its motion and thus is the restoring force.
The forces acting on the bob at any point are the force exerted by the
string and the force due to gravity.

14. The Simple Pendulum cont.
The magnitude of the restoring force (Fg,x = Fg sin q) is proportional to sin q.
When the maximum angle of displacement q is relatively small (<15°), sin q is approximately equal to q in radians.
As a result, the restoring force is very nearly proportional to the displacement.
Thus, the pendulum’s motion is an excellent approximation of simple harmonic motion.

15. Simple Harmonic Motion
There is a sinusoidal nature of a vibrating or oscillating object. A sine wave is a mathematical description of a mass on a spring.

16. Section 2 – Measuring Simple Harmonic Motion
Objectives:
Identify the amplitude of vibration.
Recognize the relationship between period and frequency.
Calculate the period and frequency of an object vibrating with simple harmonic motion.

17. Amplitude, Period, and Frequency in SHM
In SHM, the maximum displacement from equilibrium is defined as the amplitude of the vibration.
-A pendulum’s amplitude can be measured by the angle between the pendulum’s equilibrium position and its maximum displacement. SI Unit is the radian (rad).
-For a mass-spring system, the amplitude is the maximum amount the spring is stretched or compressed from its equilibrium position. SI unit is the meter (m).

18. Amplitude, Period, and Frequency in SHM
The period (T) is the time that it takes a complete cycle to occur.
-The SI unit of period is seconds (s).
The frequency (f) is the number of cycles or vibrations per unit of time.
-The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
-Hz = s–1

19. Amplitude, Period, and Frequency in SHM
Period and Frequency are inversely related
Thus, any time you have a value for period or frequency, you can calculate the other value

20. Measures of Simple Harmonic Motion

21. Period of a pendulum in SHM
The period of a simple pendulum depends on the length and on the free-fall acceleration.
The period does not depend on the mass of the bob or on the amplitude (for small angles).

22. Period of a Mass-Spring System in SHM
The period of an ideal mass-spring system depends on the mass and on the spring constant.
The period does not depend on the amplitude.
This equation applies only for systems in which the spring obeys Hooke’s law.

23. White Board Physics Challenge
You need to know the height of a tower, but darkness obscures the ceiling. You note that a pendulum extending from the ceiling almost touches the floor and that its period is 12 seconds. How tall is the tower? (36m)
A trapeze artist swings in simple harmonic motion with a period of 3.8 s. Calculate the length of the cables supporting the trapeze. (3.6m)
The body of a 1,275 kg car is supported on a frame by four springs. Two people riding in the car have a combined mass of 153kg. When driven over a pothole in the road, the frame vibrates with a period of 0.84 seconds. For the first few seconds, the vibration approximates simple harmonic motion. Find the spring constant of a single spring. (2.0 x 104 N/m)

24. CH 11 Section 3 – Properties of Waves
Distinguish local particle vibrations from overall wave motion.
Differentiate between pulse waves and periodic waves.
Interpret waveforms of transverse and longitudinal waves.
Apply the relationship among wave speed, frequency, and wavelength to solve problems.
Relate energy and amplitude

25. Let’s do the WAVE! Go HUSKIES!
What is a Wave?
A wave is the motion of a disturbance.
A wave transports energy, not matter.
Let’s do the WAVE!
Go HUSKIES!

26. Wave Motion
Medium - physical environment through which a disturbance can travel. Ex: Water is the medium for ripple waves in a pond.
Mechanical waves - waves that require a medium through which to travel. Ex: Water waves and sound waves
Electromagnetic waves – waves that do not require a medium. Ex. Light waves and radio waves
Conceptual Challenge Question
Can sound waves travel through outer space?

27. Wave Types
A wave that consists of a single traveling pulse is called a pulse wave.
Whenever the source of a wave’s motion is a periodic motion, such as the motion of your hand moving up and down repeatedly, a periodic wave is produced.
A wave whose source vibrates with simple harmonic motion is called a sine wave. Thus, a sine wave is a special case of a periodic wave in which the periodic motion is simple harmonic.

28. Relationship between SHM and Wave Motion
As the sine wave created by this vibrating blade travels to the right, a single point on the string vibrates up and down with simple harmonic motion.

29. Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

30. Wave Types
A transverse wave is a wave whose particles vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of the wave motion.
The crest is the highest point above the equilibrium position, and the trough is the lowest point below the equilibrium position.
The wavelength (l) is the distance between two adjacent similar points of a wave.

31. Wave Types
A longitudinal wave is a wave whose particles vibrate parallel to the direction the wave is traveling.
A longitudinal wave on a spring at some instant t can be represented by a graph. The crests correspond to compressed regions, and the troughs correspond to stretched regions, or rarefactions.
The crests are regions of high density and pressure (relative to the equilibrium density or pressure of the medium), and the troughs are regions of low density and pressure.

32. Period, Frequency and Wave Speed
The frequency of a wave describes the number of waves that pass a given point in a unit of time.
The period of a wave describes the time it takes for a complete wavelength to pass a given point.
The relationship between period and frequency in SHM holds true for waves as well; the period of a wave is inversely related to its frequency.

33. Period, Frequency and Wave Speed
The speed of a mechanical wave is constant for any given medium. For example, at a concert, sound waves from different instruments reach your ears at the same moment, even when the frequencies differ.
The speed of a wave is given by the following equation:
v = fl
wave speed = frequency  wavelength
This equation applies to both mechanical and electromagnetic waves.
When a mechanical wave’s frequency is increased, its wavelength must decrease in order for its speed to remain constant.

34. Waves and Energy Transfer
Waves transfer energy by the vibration of matter rather than by the transfer of matter itself.
Waves are often able to transport energy efficiently.
The rate at which a wave transfers energy depends on the amplitude.
The greater the amplitude, the more energy a wave carries in a given time interval.
For a mechanical wave, the energy transferred is proportional to the square of the wave’s amplitude, so what happens to energy when the amplitude of a mechanical wave is doubled?
The amplitude of a wave gradually diminishes over time as its energy is dissipated – damping.

35. Sample Problems
1) If a sound wave with a frequency of 20.0 Hz has a speed of 331 m/s, what is its wavelength?
2) A piano emits frequencies that range from a low of about 28 Hz to a high of about 4200 Hz. Find the range of wavelengths in air attained by this instrument when the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s?
3,4,5) The speed of all electromagnetic waves in empty space is 3.00 x 108 m/s. Calculate the wavelength of electromagnetic waves emitted a the following frequencies (1 megahertz = 1,000,000 hertz):
3) Radio waves at 88.0 MHz
4) Visible light at 6.0 x 108 MHz
5) X-rays at 3.0 x 1012 MHz
6) The red light emitted by a He-Ne laser has a wavelength of 633 nm in air and travels at 3.00 x 108 m/s. Find the frequency of the laser light (1 m = 1,000,000,000 nm).

36. Review Video Minute Physics

37. CH11 Section 4 – Wave Interactions
Apply the superposition principle
Differentiate between constructive and destructive interference
Predict when a reflected wave will be inverted
Predict whether specific traveling waves will produce a standing wave
Identify nodes and antinodes of a standing wave

38. Wave Interference
Two different material objects can never occupy the same space at the same time (Bumper Cars).
Two waves can occupy the same space at the same time.
The combination of two overlapping waves is called superposition.

39. Wave Interference cont.
In constructive interference, individual displacements on the same side of the equilibrium position are added together to form the resultant wave.

40. Wave Interference cont.
In destructive interference, individual displacements on opposite sides of the equilibrium position are added together to form the resultant wave.
What is complete destructive interference?

41. Reflection
What happens to the motion of a wave when it reaches a boundary?
At a free boundary, waves are reflected.
At a fixed boundary, waves are reflected and inverted.
Free boundary Fixed boundary

42. Standing Waves
A standing wave is a wave pattern that results when two waves of the same frequency, wavelength, and amplitude travel in opposite directions and interfere.
Standing waves have nodes and antinodes.
A node is a point in a standing wave that maintains zero displacement.
An antinode is a point in a standing wave, halfway between two nodes, at which the largest displacement occurs.

43. Standing Waves cont.
Only certain wavelengths produce standing wave patterns.
The ends of the string must be nodes because these points cannot vibrate.
A standing wave can be produced for any wavelength that allows both ends to be nodes.
In the diagram, possible wavelengths include 2L (b), L (c), and 2/3L (d).

44. Standing Waves cont.
This photograph shows four possible standing waves that can exist on a given string. The diagram shows the progression
of the second standing wave for one-half of a cycle.

45. Conceptual Questions
Can more than two waves interfere in a given medium?
Yes, because waves do not collide like other matter: They add to form a resultant wave.
What is the resultant displacement at a position where destructive interference is complete?
Zero
When two waves interfere, can the resultant wave be larger than either of the two original waves? If so, under what conditions?
Yes, when constructive interference occurs.

46. Video Review