1. Redox Geochemistry

2. WHY? Redox gradients drive life processes! –The transfer of electrons between oxidants and reactants is harnessed as the battery, the source of metabolic energy for organisms Metal mobility  redox state of metals and ligands that may complex them is the critical factor in the solubility of many metals –Contaminant transport –Ore deposit formation

3. J. Willard Gibbs Gibbs realized that for a reaction, a certain amount of energy goes to an increase in entropy of a system. G = H –TS or  G 0 R =  H 0 R – T  S 0 R Gibbs Free Energy (G) is a state variable, measured in KJ/mol or Cal/mol Tabulated values of  G 0 R available…

4. Equilibrium Constant for aA + bB  cC + dD: Restate the equation as:  G R =  G 0 R + RT ln Q  G R = available metabolic energy (when negative = exergonic process as opposed to endergonic process for + energy) for a particular reaction whose components exist in a particular concentration

5. Activity Activity, a, is the term which relates Gibbs Free Energy to chemical potential:  i -G 0 i = RT ln a i Why is there now a correction term you might ask… –Has to do with how things mix together –Relates an ideal solution to a non-ideal solution

6. Ions in solution Ions in solutions are obviously nonideal states! Use activities (a i ) to apply thermodynamics and law of mass action a i =  i m i The activity coefficient,  i, is found via some empirical foundations

7. Activity Coefficients Extended Debye-Huckel approximation (valid for I up to 0.5 M): Where A and B are constants (tabulated), and a is a measure of the effective diameter of the ion (tabulated)

8. Speciation Any element exists in a solution, solid, or gas as 1 to n ions, molecules, or solids Example: Ca 2+ can exist in solution as: Ca ++ CaCl + CaNO 3 + Ca(H 3 SiO 4 ) 2 CaF + CaOH + Ca(O-phth) CaH 2 SiO 4 CaPO 4 - CaB(OH) 4 + CaH 3 SiO 4 + CaSO 4 CaCH 3 COO + CaHCO 3 + CaHPO 4 0 CaCO 3 0 Plus more species  gases and minerals!!

9. Mass Action & Mass Balance mCa 2+ =mCa 2+ +MCaCl + + mCaCl 2 0 + CaCL 3 - + CaHCO 3 + + CaCO 3 0 + CaF + + CaSO 4 0 + CaHSO 4 + + CaOH + +… Final equation to solve the problem sees the mass action for each complex substituted into the mass balance equation

10. Geochemical models Hundreds of equations solved iteratively for speciation, solve for  G R All programs work on same concept for speciation thermodynamics and calculations of mineral equilibrium – lots of variation in output, specific info…

11. Oxidation – Reduction Reactions Oxidation - a process involving loss of electrons. Reduction - a process involving gain of electrons. Reductant - a species that loses electrons. Oxidant - a species that gains electrons. Free electrons do not exist in solution. Any electron lost from one species in solution must be immediately gained by another. Ox 1 + Red 2  Red 1 + Ox 2 LEO says GER

12. Half Reactions Often split redox reactions in two: –oxidation half rxn  e- leaves left, goes right Fe 2+  Fe 3+ + e- –Reduction half rxn  e- leaves left, goes right O 2 + 4 e -  2 H 2 O SUM of the half reactions yields the total redox reaction 4 Fe 2+  4 Fe 3+ + 4 e- O 2 + 4 e -  2 H 2 O 4 Fe 2+ + O 2  4 Fe 3+ + 2 H 2 O

13. Half-reaction vocabulary part II Anodic Reaction – an oxidation reaction Cathodic Reaction – a reduction reaction Relates the direction of the half reaction: A  A + + e - == anodic B + e -  B - == cathodic

14. ELECTRON ACTIVITY Although no free electrons exist in solution, it is useful to define a quantity called the electron activity: The pe indicates the tendency of a solution to donate or accept a proton. If pe is low, there is a strong tendency for the solution to donate protons - the solution is reducing. If pe is high, there is a strong tendency for the solution to accept protons - the solution is oxidizing.

15. THE pe OF A HALF REACTION - I Consider the half reaction MnO 2 (s) + 4H + + 2e -  Mn 2+ + 2H 2 O(l) The equilibrium constant is Solving for the electron activity

16. DEFINITION OF Eh Eh - the potential of a solution relative to the SHE. Both pe and Eh measure essentially the same thing. They may be converted via the relationship: Where  = 96.42 kJ volt -1 eq -1 (Faraday’s constant). At 25°C, this becomes or

17. Free Energy and Electropotential Talked about electropotential (aka emf, Eh)  driving force for e - transfer How does this relate to driving force for any reaction defined by  G r ??  G r = - n  E –Where n is the # of e-’s in the rxn,  is Faraday’s constant (23.06 cal V -1 ), and E is electropotential (V) pe for an electron transfer between a redox couple analagous to pK between conjugate acid- base pair

18. Electropotentials E 0 is standard electropotential, also standard reduction potential (write rxn as a reduction ½ rxn) – E H is relative to SHE (Std Hydrogen Electrode) At non-standard conditions: At 25° C:

19. Electromotive Series When we put two redox species together, they will react towards equilibrium, i.e., e- will move  which ones move electrons from others better is the electromotive series Measurement of this is through the electropotential for half-reactions of any redox couple (like Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ) –Because  G r =-n  E, combining two half reactions in a certain way will yield either a + or – electropotential (additive, remember to switch sign when reversing a rxn) +E  -  G r, therefore  spontaneous In order of decreasing strength as a reducing agent  strong reducing agents are better e- donors

20. Redox reactions with more negative reduction potentials will donate electrons to redox reactions with more positive potentials. NADP + + 2H + + 2e -  NADPH + H + -0.32 O 2 + 4H + + 4e -  2H 2 O +0.81 NADPH + H +  NADP + + 2H + + 2e - +0.32 O 2 + 4H + + 4e -  2H 2 O +0.81 2 NADPH + O 2 + 2H +  2 NADP + + 2 H 2 O+1.13

21. ELECTRON TOWER more negative more positive BOM – Figure 5.9 oxidized/reduced forms potential acceptor/donor

23. Microbes, e- flow Catabolism – breakdown of any compound for energy Anabolism – consumption of that energy for biosynthesis Transfer of e- facilitated by e- carriers, some bound to the membrane, some freely diffusible

24. NAD + /NADH and NADP + /NADPH Oxidation-reduction reactions use NAD + or FADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, flavin adenine dinucleotide). When a metabolite is oxidized, NAD + accepts two electrons plus a hydrogen ion (H + ) and NADH results. NADH then carries energy to cell for other uses

25. transport of electrons coupled to pumping protons glucose e- CH 2 O  CO2 + 4 e- + H+ 0.5 O 2 + 4e - + 4H +  H 2 O

26. Proton Motive Force (PMF) Enzymatic reactions pump H + outside the cell, there are a number of membrane- bound enzymes which transfer e - s and pump H + out of the cell Develop a strong gradient of H + across the membrane (remember this is 8 nm thick) This gradient is CRITICAL to cell function because of how ATP is generated…

27. HOW IS THE PMF USED TO SYNTHESIZE ATP? catalyzed by ATP synthase BOM – Figure 5.21

28. ATP generation II Alternative methods to form ATP: Phosphorylation  coupled to fermentation, low yield of ATP

29. ATP Your book says ATP: “Drives thermodynamically unfavorable reactions”  BULLSHIT, this is impossible The de-phosphorylation of ATP into ADP provides free energy to drive reactions!

30. Minimum Free Energy for growth Minimun free energy for growth = energy to make ATP? What factors go into the energy budget of an organism??

31. REDOX CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL WATERS Oxic waters - waters that contain measurable dissolved oxygen. Suboxic waters - waters that lack measurable oxygen or sulfide, but do contain significant dissolved iron (> ~0.1 mg L -1 ). Reducing waters (anoxic) - waters that contain both dissolved iron and sulfide.

32. The Redox ladder H2OH2O H2H2 O2O2 H2OH2O NO 3 - N2N2 MnO 2 Mn 2+ Fe(OH) 3 Fe 2+ SO 4 2- H2SH2S CO 2 CH 4 Oxic Sub-oxic anaerobic Sulfidic Methanic Aerobes Denitrifiers Manganese reducers Sulfate reducers Methanogens Iron reducers The redox-couples are shown on each stair-step, where the most energy is gained at the top step and the least at the bottom step. (Gibb’s free energy becomes more positive going down the steps)