1. Chapter 5 Link Layer slides are modified from J. Kurose & K. Ross CPE 400 / 600 Computer Communication Networks Lecture 23

2. DataLink Layer2 Ethernet r bus topology popular through mid 90s m all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each other) r today: star topology prevails m active switch in center m each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes do not collide with each other) bus: coaxial cable switch star

3. DataLink Layer3 Ethernet Frame Structure Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame Preamble: r 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011 r used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

4. DataLink Layer4 Ethernet Frame Structure (more) r Addresses: 6 bytes m if adapter receives frame with matching destination address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet), it passes data in frame to network layer protocol m otherwise, adapter discards frame r Type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk) r CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, frame is dropped

5. DataLink Layer5 Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm 1. NIC receives datagram from network layer, creates frame 2. If NIC senses channel idle, starts frame transmission. If NIC senses channel busy, waits until channel idle, then transmits 3. If NIC transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission, NIC is done with frame ! 4. If NIC detects another transmission while transmitting, aborts and sends jam signal 5. After aborting, NIC enters exponential backoff: after mth collision, NIC chooses K at random from {0,1,2,…,2 m -1}. NIC waits K·512 bit times, returns to Step 2

6. DataLink Layer6 CSMA/CD efficiency r T prop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN r t trans = time to transmit max-size frame r efficiency goes to 1 m as t prop goes to 0 m as t trans goes to infinity r better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized !

7. DataLink Layer7 802.3 Ethernet Standards: Link & Physical Layers r many different Ethernet standards m common MAC protocol and frame format m different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps, 10G bps m different physical layer media: fiber, cable application transport network link physical MAC protocol and frame format 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T4 100BASE-FX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX fiber physical layer copper (twister pair) physical layer

8. DataLink Layer8 Hubs … physical-layer (“dumb”) repeaters: m bits coming in one link go out all other links at same rate m all nodes connected to hub can collide with one another m no frame buffering m no CSMA/CD at hub: host NICs detect collisions twisted pair hub

9. DataLink Layer9 Switch r link-layer device: smarter than hubs, take active role m store, forward Ethernet frames m examine incoming frame’s MAC address, selectively forward frame to one-or-more outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment r transparent m hosts are unaware of presence of switches r plug-and-play, self-learning m switches do not need to be configured

10. DataLink Layer10 Switch: allows multiple simultaneous transmissions r hosts have dedicated, direct connection to switch r switches buffer packets r Ethernet protocol used on each incoming link, but no collisions; full duplex m each link is its own collision domain r switching: A-to-A’ and B- to-B’ simultaneously, without collisions m not possible with dumb hub A A’ B B’ C C’ switch with six interfaces (1,2,3,4,5,6) 1 2 3 4 5 6

11. DataLink Layer11 Switch: frame filtering/forwarding When frame received: 1. record link associated with sending host 2. index switch table using MAC dest address 3. if entry found for destination then { if dest on segment from which frame arrived then drop the frame else forward the frame on interface indicated } else flood forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived

12. DataLink Layer12 Self-learning, forwarding: example A A’ B B’ C C’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 A A’ Source: A Dest: A’ MAC addr interface TTL Switch table (initially empty) A 1 60 A A’ r frame destination unknown: flood A’ A r destination A location known: A’ 4 60 selective send

13. DataLink Layer13 Interconnecting switches r switches can be connected together A B r Q: sending from A to G - how does S 1 know to forward frame destined to F via S 4 and S 3 ? r A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in single- switch case!) S1S1 C D E F S2S2 S4S4 S3S3 H I G

14. DataLink Layer14 Switches vs. Routers r both store-and-forward devices m routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers) m switches are link layer devices r routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms r switches maintain switch tables, implement filtering, learning algorithms

15. DataLink Layer15 Lecture 23: Outline r 5.5 Ethernet r 5.6 Link-layer switches r 5.7 Point to Point Protocol r 5.8 Link Virtualization m ATM m MPLS

16. DataLink Layer16 Point to Point Data Link Control r one sender, one receiver, one link: easier than broadcast link: m no Media Access Control m no need for explicit MAC addressing m e.g., dialup link, ISDN line r popular point-to-point DLC protocols: m PPP (point-to-point protocol) m HDLC: High level data link control (Data link used to be considered “high layer” in protocol stack!)

17. DataLink Layer17 PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557] r packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame m carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same time m ability to demultiplex upwards r bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the data field r error detection (no correction) r connection liveness: detect, signal link failure to network layer r network layer address negotiation: endpoint can learn/configure each other’s network address

18. DataLink Layer18 PPP non-requirements r no error correction/recovery r no flow control r out of order delivery OK r no need to support multipoint links (e.g., polling) Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers!

19. DataLink Layer19 PPP Data Frame r Flag: delimiter (framing) r Address: does nothing (only one option) r Control: does nothing; in the future possible multiple control fields r Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg, IP, PPP-LCP, IPCP, etc) r info: upper layer data being carried r check: cyclic redundancy check for error detection

20. DataLink Layer20 Byte Stuffing r “data transparency” requirement: data field must be allowed to include flag pattern m Q: is received data or flag? m Sender: adds (“stuffs”) special control escape byte before each data byte m Receiver: 01111101 : discard control escape byte, continue data reception r Q: what if data contains ? m add extra byte before each data byte

21. DataLink Layer21 Byte Stuffing flag byte pattern in data to send flag byte pattern plus stuffed byte in transmitted data

22. DataLink Layer22 PPP Data Control Protocol Before exchanging network- layer data, data link peers must r configure PPP link (max. frame length, authentication) r learn/configure network layer information m for IP: carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field: 8021) to configure/learn IP address

23. DataLink Layer23 Lecture 23: Outline r 5.5 Ethernet r 5.6 Link-layer switches r 5.7 Point to Point Protocol r 5.8 Link Virtualization m ATM m MPLS

24. DataLink Layer24 Virtualization of networks Virtualization of resources: powerful abstraction in systems engineering: r computing examples: virtual memory, virtual devices m Virtual machines: e.g., java m IBM VM os from 1960’s/70’s r layering of abstractions: don’t sweat the details of the lower layer, only deal with lower layers abstractly

25. DataLink Layer25 The Internet: virtualizing networks 1974: multiple unconnected nets m ARPAnet m data-over-cable networks m packet satellite network (Aloha) m packet radio network … differing in: m addressing conventions m packet formats m error recovery m routing ARPAnet satellite net

26. DataLink Layer26 The Internet: virtualizing networks ARPAnet satellite net gateway Internetwork layer (IP): r addressing: internetwork appears as single, uniform entity, despite underlying local network heterogeneity r network of networks Gateway: r “embed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract them” r route (at internetwork level) to next gateway

27. DataLink Layer27 Cerf & Kahn’s Internetwork Architecture What is virtualized? r two layers of addressing: internetwork and local network r new layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layer r underlying local network technology m cable m satellite m telephone modem m today: ATM, MPLS … “invisible” at internetwork layer. Looks like a link layer technology to IP!

28. DataLink Layer28 ATM and MPLS r ATM, MPLS separate networks in their own right m different service models, addressing, routing from Internet r viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers m just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)

29. DataLink Layer29 Asynchronous Transfer Mode: ATM r 1990’s/00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architecture r Goal: integrated, end-end transport of carry voice, video, data m meeting timing/QoS requirements of voice, video (versus Internet best-effort model) m “next generation” telephony: technical roots in telephone world m packet-switching (fixed length packets, called “cells”) using virtual circuits

30. DataLink Layer30 ATM architecture r adaptation layer: only at edge of ATM network m data segmentation/reassembly m roughly analagous to Internet transport layer r ATM layer: “network” layer m cell switching, routing r physical layer physical ATM AAL physical ATM AAL physical ATM physical ATM end system switch

31. DataLink Layer31 ATM: network or link layer? Vision: end-to-end transport: “ATM from desktop to desktop” m ATM is a network technology Reality: used to connect IP backbone routers m “IP over ATM” m ATM as switched link layer, connecting IP routers ATM network IP network

32. DataLink Layer32 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) r ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): “adapts” upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer below r AAL present only in end systems, not in switches r AAL layer segment (header/trailer fields, data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells m analogy: TCP segment in many IP packets physical ATM AAL physical ATM AAL physical ATM physical ATM end system switch

33. DataLink Layer33 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more] r Different versions of AAL layers, depending on ATM service class: m AAL1: for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services, e.g. circuit emulation m AAL2: for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services, e.g., MPEG video m AAL5: for data (eg, IP datagrams) AAL PDU ATM cell User data small payload -> short cell-creation delay for digitized voice

34. DataLink Layer34 ATM Layer Service: transport cells across ATM network r analogous to IP network layer r very different services than IP network layer Network Architecture Internet ATM Service Model best effort CBR VBR ABR UBR Bandwidth none constant rate guaranteed rate guaranteed minimum none Loss no yes no Order no yes Timing no yes no Congestion feedback no (inferred via loss) no congestion no congestion yes no Guarantees ?

35. DataLink Layer35 ATM Layer: Virtual Circuits r VC transport: cells carried on VC from source to dest m call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow m each packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID) m every switch on source-dest path maintain “state” for each passing connection m link,switch resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to VC: to get circuit-like perf. r Permanent VCs (PVCs) m long lasting connections m typically: “permanent” route between to IP routers r Switched VCs (SVC): m dynamically set up on per-call basis

36. DataLink Layer36 ATM VCs r Advantages of ATM VC approach: m QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth, delay, delay jitter) r Drawbacks of ATM VC approach: m Inefficient support of datagram traffic m one PVC between each source/dest pair) does not scale (N*2 connections needed) m SVC introduces call setup latency, processing overhead for short lived connections

37. DataLink Layer37 ATM cell header r 5-byte ATM cell header r VCI: virtual channel ID m will change from link to link thru net r PT: Payload type (e.g. RM cell versus data cell) r CLP: Cell Loss Priority bit m CLP = 1 implies low priority cell, can be discarded if congestion r HEC: Header Error Checksum m cyclic redundancy check

38. DataLink Layer38 ATM Physical Layer r Transmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS): adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer below m Header checksum generation: 8 bits CRC m Cell delineation m With “unstructured” PMD sublayer, transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send r Physical Medium Dependent: depends on physical medium being used m SONET/SDH (like a container carrying bits): TDM OC3 = 155.52 Mbps; OC12 = 622.08 Mbps; OC48 = 2.45 Gbps, OC192 = 9.6 Gbps m T1/T3 (old telephone hierarchy): 1.5 Mbps/ 45 Mbps m unstructured: just cells (busy/idle)

39. DataLink Layer39 IP-Over-ATM Classic IP only r 3 “networks” (e.g., LAN segments) r MAC and IP addresses IP over ATM r replace “network” (e.g., LAN segment) with ATM network r ATM addresses, IP addresses Ethernet LANs ATM network Ethernet LANs

40. DataLink Layer40 IP-Over-ATM AAL ATM phy Eth IP ATM phy ATM phy app transport IP AAL ATM phy app transport IP Eth phy IP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUs IP addresses to ATM addresses

41. DataLink Layer41 Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network r at Source Host: m IP layer maps between IP, ATM dest address (using ARP) m passes datagram to AAL5 m AAL5 encapsulates data, segments cells, passes to ATM layer r ATM network: moves cell along VC to destination r at Destination Host: m AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagram m if CRC OK, datagram is passed to IP

42. DataLink Layer42 Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) r initial goal: speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding m borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approach m but IP datagram still keeps IP address! PPP or Ethernet header IP header remainder of link-layer frame MPLS header label Exp S TTL 20 3 1 5

43. DataLink Layer43 MPLS capable routers r a.k.a. label-switched router r forwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (don’t inspect IP address) m MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables r signaling protocol needed to set up forwarding m RSVP-TE m forwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (e.g., source-specific routing) !! m use MPLS for traffic engineering r must co-exist with IP-only routers

44. DataLink Layer44 R1 R2 D R3 R4 R5 0 1 0 0 A R6 in out out label label dest interface 6 - A 0 in out out label label dest interface 10 6 A 1 12 9 D 0 1 in out out label label dest interface 8 6 A 0 0 in out out label label dest interface 10 A 0 12 D 0 8 A 1 MPLS forwarding tables

45. DataLink Layer45 Chapter 5: Summary r principles behind data link layer services: m error detection, correction m sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access m link layer addressing r instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies m Ethernet m switched LANS m PPP m virtualized networks as a link layer: ATM, MPLS