1. The Development of Atomic Models
5.1
The Development of Atomic Models
The Development of Atomic Models
What was inadequate about Rutherford’s atomic model?

2. The Development of Atomic Models
5.1
The Development of Atomic Models
Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain the chemical properties of elements.
Rutherford’s atomic model could not explain why objects change color when heated.
Rutherford’s model fails to explain why objects change color when heated. As the temperature of this horseshoe is increased, it first appears black, then red, then yellow, and then white. The observed behavior could be explained only if the atoms in the iron gave off light in specific amounts of energy. A better atomic model was needed to explain this observation.

3. The Development of Atomic Models
5.1
The Development of Atomic Models
The timeline shoes the development of atomic models from 1803 to 1911.
These illustrations show how the atomic model has changed as scientists learned more about the atom’s structure.

4. The Development of Atomic Models
5.1
The Development of Atomic Models
The timeline shows the development of atomic models from 1913 to 1932.
These illustrations show how the atomic model has changed as scientists learned more about the atom’s structure.

5. 5.1
The Bohr Model
The Bohr Model
What was the new proposal in the Bohr model of the atom?

6. Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s model has a fixed energy.
5.1
The Bohr Model
Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s model has a fixed energy.
The fixed energies an electron can have are called energy levels.
A quantum of energy is the amount of energy required to move an electron from one energy level to another energy level.

7. 5.1
The Bohr Model
Like the rungs of the strange ladder, the energy levels in an atom are not equally spaced.
The higher the energy level occupied by an electron, the less energy it takes to move from that energy level to the next higher energy level.
These ladder steps are somewhat like energy levels. In an ordinary ladder, the rungs are equally spaced. The energy levels in atoms are unequally spaced, like the rungs in this ladder. The higher energy levels are closer together.

8. The Quantum Mechanical Model
5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
The Quantum Mechanical Model
What does the quantum mechanical model determine about the electrons in an atom?

9. The Quantum Mechanical Model
5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
The quantum mechanical model determines the allowed energies an electron can have and how likely it is to find the electron in various locations around the nucleus.

10. The Quantum Mechanical Model
5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887– 1961) used new theoretical calculations and results to devise and solve a mathematical equation describing the behavior of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the quantum mechanical model, comes from the mathematical solutions to the Schrödinger equation.

11. The Quantum Mechanical Model
5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
The propeller blade has the same probability of being anywhere in the blurry region, but you cannot tell its location at any instant. The electron cloud of an atom can be compared to a spinning airplane propeller.
The electron cloud of an atom is compared here to photographs of a spinning airplane propeller. a) The airplane propeller is somewhere in the blurry region it produces in this picture, but the picture does not tell you its exact position at any instant. b) Similarly, the electron cloud of an atom represents the locations where an electron is likely to be found.

12. The Quantum Mechanical Model
5.1
The Quantum Mechanical Model
In the quantum mechanical model, the probability of finding an electron within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus can be represented as a fuzzy cloud. The cloud is more dense where the probability of finding the electron is high.
The electron cloud of an atom is compared here to photographs of a spinning airplane propeller. a) The airplane propeller is somewhere in the blurry region it produces in this picture, but the picture does not tell you its exact position at any instant. b) Similarly, the electron cloud of an atom represents the locations where an electron is likely to be found.

13. 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
An atomic orbital is often thought of as a region of space in which there is a high probability of finding an electron.
Each energy sublevel corresponds to an orbital of a different shape, which describes where the electron is likely to be found.

14. 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
Different atomic orbitals are denoted by letters. The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.
The electron clouds for the s orbital and the p orbitals are shown here.

15. 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space.
The d orbitals are illustrated here. Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but different orientations in space. Interpreting Diagrams How are the orientations of the dxy and dx2 – y2 orbitals similar? How are they different?

16. 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
The numbers and kinds of atomic orbitals depend on the energy sublevel.

17. 5.1
Atomic Orbitals
The number of electrons allowed in each of the first four energy levels are shown here.

18. 5.1 Section Quiz.
1. Rutherford's planetary model of the atom could not explain
any properties of elements.
the chemical properties of elements.
the distribution of mass in an atom.
the distribution of positive and negative charges in an atom.

19. 5.1 Section Quiz.
2. Bohr's model of the atom proposed that electrons are found
embedded in a sphere of positive charge.
in fixed positions surrounding the nucleus.
in circular orbits at fixed distances from the nucleus.
orbiting the nucleus in a single fixed circular path.

20. 5.1 Section Quiz.
3. What is the lowest-numbered principal energy level in which p orbitals are found? 1 2 3 4

21. Electron Arrangement in Atoms
5.2
Electron Arrangement in Atoms
If this rock were to tumble over, it would end up at a lower height. It would have less energy than before, but its position would be more stable. You will learn that energy and stability play an important role in determining how electrons are configured in an atom.

22. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
Electron Configurations
What are the three rules for writing the electron configurations of elements?

23. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
The ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms are called electron configurations.
Three rules—the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule—tell you how to find the electron configurations of atoms.

24. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
Aufbau Principle
According to the aufbau principle, electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first. In the aufbau diagram below, each box represents an atomic orbital.
This aufbau diagram shows the energy levels of the various atomic orbitals. Orbitals of greater energy are higher on the diagram. Using Tables Which is of higher energy, a 4d or a 5s orbital?

25. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
Pauli Exclusion Principle
According to the Pauli exclusion principle, an atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must have opposite spins; that is, the electron spins must be paired.

26. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
Hund’s Rule
Hund’s rule states that electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible.

27. Electron Configurations
5.2
Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling Diagram

31. for Conceptual Problem 1.1

32. Exceptional Electron Configurations
5.2
Exceptional Electron Configurations
Exceptional Electron Configurations
Why do actual electron configurations for some elements differ from those assigned using the aufbau principle?

33. Exceptional Electron Configurations
5.2
Exceptional Electron Configurations
Some actual electron configurations differ from those assigned using the aufbau principle because half-filled sublevels are not as stable as filled sublevels, but they are more stable than other configurations.

34. Exceptional Electron Configurations
5.2
Exceptional Electron Configurations
Exceptions to the aufbau principle are due to subtle electron- electron interactions in orbitals with very similar energies.
Copper has an electron configuration that is an exception to the aufbau principle.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is commonly used in electrical wiring.

35. 5.2 Section Quiz.
1. Identify the element that corresponds to the following electron configuration: 1s22s22p5. F Cl Ne O

36. 5.2 Section Quiz.
2. Write the electron configuration for the atom N.
1s22s22p5
1s22s22p3
1s22s1p2
1s22s22p1

37. the lowest energy level is completely filled.
5.2 Section Quiz.
3. The electron configurations for some elements differ from those predicted by the aufbau principle because the
the lowest energy level is completely filled.
none of the energy levels are completely filled.
half-filled sublevels are less stable than filled energy levels.
half-filled sublevels are more stable than some other arrangements. `

38. Physics and the Quantum Mechanical Model
5.3
Physics and the Quantum Mechanical Model
Neon advertising signs are formed from glass tubes bent in various shapes. An electric current passing through the gas in each glass tube makes the gas glow with its own characteristic color. You will learn why each gas glows with a specific color of light.

39. How are the wavelength and frequency of light related?
5.3
Light
Light
How are the wavelength and frequency of light related?

40. The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest.
5.3
Light
The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from zero to the crest.
The wavelength, represented by  (the Greek letter lambda), is the distance between the crests.

41. The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz).
5.3
Light
The frequency, represented by  (the Greek letter nu), is the number of wave cycles to pass a given point per unit of time.
The SI unit of cycles per second is called a hertz (Hz).

42. 5.3
Light
The wavelength and frequency of light are inversely proportional to each other.
The frequency and wavelength of light waves are inversely related. As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases.

43. 5.3
Light
The product of the frequency and wavelength always equals a constant (c), the speed of light.

44. According to the wave model, light consists of electromagnetic waves.
5.3
Light
According to the wave model, light consists of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.
All electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum at a speed of  108 m/s.

45. Light
5.3
Sunlight consists of light with a continuous range of wavelengths and frequencies.
When sunlight passes through a prism, the different frequencies separate into a spectrum of colors.
In the visible spectrum, red light has the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency.

46. 5.3
Light
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of radiation over a broad band of wavelengths.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of radiation over a broad band of wavelengths. The visible light portion is very small. It is in the 10-7m wavelength range and 1015 Hz (s-1) frequency range. Interpreting Diagrams What types of nonvisible radiation have wavelengths close to those of red light? To those of blue light?

47. 5.1
Sodium vapor lamps produce a yellow glow.

48. 5.1

49. 5.1

50. 5.1

51. for Sample Problem 5.1

52. What causes atomic emission spectra?
5.3
Atomic Spectra
Atomic Spectra
What causes atomic emission spectra?

53. 5.3
Atomic Spectra
When atoms absorb energy, electrons move into higher energy levels. These electrons then lose energy by emitting light when they return to lower energy levels.

54. 5.3
Atomic Spectra
A prism separates light into the colors it contains. When white light passes through a prism, it produces a rainbow of colors.
A prism separates light into the colors it contains. For white light this produces a rainbow of colors.

55. 5.3
Atomic Spectra
When light from a helium lamp passes through a prism, discrete lines are produced.
A prism separates light into the colors it contains. Light from a helium lamp produces discrete lines. Identifying Which color has the highest frequency?

56. 5.3
Atomic Spectra
The frequencies of light emitted by an element separate into discrete lines to give the atomic emission spectrum of the element.
Mercury
Nitrogen
No two elements have the same emission spectrum. a) Mercury vapor lamps produce a blue glow. b) Nitrogen gas gives off a yellowish-orange light.

57. An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
How are the frequencies of light an atom emits related to changes of electron energies?

58. An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
In the Bohr model, the lone electron in the hydrogen atom can have only certain specific energies.
When the electron has its lowest possible energy, the atom is in its ground state.
Excitation of the electron by absorbing energy raises the atom from the ground state to an excited state.
A quantum of energy in the form of light is emitted when the electron drops back to a lower energy level.

59. An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
The light emitted by an electron moving from a higher to a lower energy level has a frequency directly proportional to the energy change of the electron.

60. An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
5.3
An Explanation of Atomic Spectra
The three groups of lines in the hydrogen spectrum correspond to the transition of electrons from higher energy levels to lower energy levels.
The three groups of lines in the hydrogen spectrum correspond to the transition of electrons from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. The Lyman series corresponds to the transition to the n  1 energy level. The Balmer series corresponds to the transition to the n  2 energy level. The Paschen series corresponds to the transition to the n  3 energy level.

61. How does quantum mechanics differ from classical mechanics?
5.3
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics
How does quantum mechanics differ from classical mechanics?

62. The quanta behave as if they were particles.
5.3
Quantum Mechanics
In 1905, Albert Einstein successfully explained experimental data by proposing that light could be described as quanta of energy.
The quanta behave as if they were particles.
Light quanta are called photons.
In 1924, De Broglie developed an equation that predicts that all moving objects have wavelike behavior.

63. 5.3
Quantum Mechanics
Today, the wavelike properties of beams of electrons are useful in magnifying objects. The electrons in an electron microscope have much smaller wavelengths than visible light. This allows a much clearer enlarged image of a very small object, such as this fly.
An electron microscope can produce sharp images of a very small object, such as this mite, because of the small wavelength of a moving electron compared with that of light.

64. 5.3
Quantum Mechanics
Classical mechanics adequately describes the motions of bodies much larger than atoms, while quantum mechanics describes the motions of subatomic particles and atoms as waves.

65. 5.3
Quantum Mechanics
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time.
This limitation is critical in dealing with small particles such as electrons.
This limitation does not matter for ordinary-sized object such as cars or airplanes.

66. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
5.3
Quantum Mechanics
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time.

67. 5.3 Section Quiz.
1. Calculate the frequency of a radar wave with a wavelength of 125 mm. Hz Hz Hz Hz

68. 5.3 Section Quiz.
2. The lines in the emission spectrum for an element are caused by
the movement of electrons from lower to higher energy levels.
the movement of electrons from higher to lower energy levels.
the electron configuration in the ground state.
the electron configuration of an atom.

69. 5.3 Section Quiz.
3. Spectral lines in a series become closer together as n increases because the
energy levels have similar values.
energy levels become farther apart.
atom is approaching ground state.
electrons are being emitted at a slower rate.

70. Concept Map 5
Concept Map 5 Solve the concept map with the help of an interactive guided tutorial.

71. END OF SHOW