1. Naturalistic Observation and Case-Study Research
Graziano and Raulin
Research Methods: Chapter 6
Graziano & Raulin (2000)
Graziano & Raulin (1997)

2. Challenge of Low-Constraint Research
Usually involves careful observation of participants in their natural surroundings
Can be very difficult to observe behavior in natural surroundings
Often we are not sure what behaviors are important until after we have observed for a while
Without the controls of the laboratory, participants are free to do what they want to do, and not what we are hoping to observe
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

3. Naturalistic Observation Examples
Charles Darwin’s voyage on the HMS Beagle (the basis for his theory of natural selection)
Jane Goodall's study of chimpanzees
Dian Fossey’s study of the mountain gorilla
Adeline Levine’s study of the Love Canal
Rosenhan’s study of psychiatric hospitalization
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

4. Case-Study Examples
Sigmund Freud’s study of patients, which formed the basis for his psychoanalytic theory
E. L. Witmer’s study of children in the first psychology clinic in North America
Jean Piaget’s study of the development of children, which led to numerous theories of child development
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

5. Value of these Methods When to use low-constraint research
For questions involving the natural flow of behavior
When first studying a new research area
When testing the feasibility of a procedure
To test the generalizability of laboratory findings
Information gained from these methods
Provides new descriptive information
Can negate a general proposition
Provides information about contingencies
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

6. Problem Statements and Hypotheses
Problem statements are often general and flexible in low-constraint research studies
Problem statements and hypotheses may evolve (i.e, start out general and become more specific) as the study progresses, building on new observations
Unable to test causal hypotheses with low-constraint research
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

7. Making Observations
Unobtrusive observation: observing behavior without participants’ knowledge
Participant observation: observing behavior while participating in the situation
Want to reduce measurement reactivity
People behaving differently when observed
Reactive measures: enhance reactivity
Nonreactive measures: minimize reactivity
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

8. Archival Records Exist independent of a research study
Kept for purposes other than research, but they may be valuable in some research studies
May include government records, school and hospital records, census data, etc.
Access to such archival records are restricted by legal and ethical constraints
Valuable data source for some studies
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

9. Ethical Issues
Use of unobtrusive measures (including archival records) raises ethical issues
Participants are not given the right to consent
Some of the archival records contain sensitive data
Researchers need to show the necessity for unobtrusive measures and safeguards to protect the rights of the participants
Must have IRB approval
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

10. Sampling of Participants
Try to obtain a representative sample
Representative samples allow us to generalize findings to the larger group
Sampling is often not under the control of the researcher in low-constraint research
Therefore, caution is required in interpreting the results
Generalize only to similar participants and NOT to the general population
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

11. Sampling of Situations
People (and animals) behave differently in different situations
To get an adequate picture of behavior, we need to sample the behavior in many situations
Sampling many situations will give us an idea of how consistent behavior is
It also gives clues about what factors may be affecting the behavior
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

12. Sampling of Behaviors
Even in the same situation, people may behave differently on different occasions
Repeated sampling of behavior in a specific situation will indicate the consistency of the behavior
Repeated observation (essentially a replication) prevents us from developing theories based on a single, unusual behavioral response of the organism
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

13. Evaluating the Data
The data from low-constraint research is a rich set of information
Data usually needs to be coded to provide simplification and organization
The analyses will depend on the questions and the level of data produced after coding
Must be cautious in interpreting data from low-constraint research
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

14. Limitations Poor representativeness Poor replicability
Ex post facto fallacy
Limitations of the observer
Going Beyond the Data
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

15. Poor Representativeness
Most low-constraint studies have small samples that were not randomly selected from the population
Rarely do the samples represent the population
Consequently, it is dangerous to generalize your findings to the population
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

16. Poor Replicability Studies can be replicated only if
The procedures are clearly specified
The procedures were followed exactly
In low-constraint research
Procedures are often not specified
They may change as the study continues
They are often unique to the observer
Therefore, replication is very difficult
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

17. Ex Post Facto Fallacy
Interpreting an observed contingency as if it represented a causal connection
Low-constraint observation will never provide the controls for such strong conclusions
If ex post facto conclusions are interpreted as hypotheses for further research, and not as established facts, then they serve a useful scientific purpose
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

18. Limitations of the Observer
Low-constraint studies often rely on the observational skills of the researcher
Detailed procedures are not specified
Specific procedures would decrease flexibility
However, detailed procedures could constrain the observer in a way that would limit experimenter biases
Give up some control for the flexibility
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

19. Experimenter Bias
Without the controls found in higher constraint research, it is difficult for the researcher to avoid influencing participants
Experimenter reactivity is the term used to describe this unwanted influence on the participants’ behavior
Experimenter effects can be controlled in higher-constraint research
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

20. Going Beyond the Data Low-constraint data are often intriguing
Nevertheless, one must be careful in drawing strong conclusions
Rosenhan has been criticized for broadly over-interpreting his data, even distorting the data
Interpretation should take into account other information we know about a phenomenon
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

21. Survey Research A widely used research technique
Provides information about people’s attitudes, experience, and knowledge
Used extensively today by researchers, politicians, and news organizations
First introduced in the 1830s in England
Study the impact of the Industrial Revolution on people’s lives
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

22. Types of Surveys Status surveys Survey research
Descriptive survey about the current status of the population sampled
Descriptive information can guide policy and inform policy makers
Survey research
Seeks to identify relationships among the variables studied in the survey
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

23. Steps in Survey Research
Determine what you want to study
Define the population to be studied
Design, construct, pilot, and refine the survey instrument
Select a representative sample
Administer the survey
Analyze, interpret, and communicate the results
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

24. Form of the Survey Instrument
Group-administered survey
Written survey with instructions included
Administered in groups or through the mail
Individual survey schedule
Administered in person or over the phone
Can be rather complex, provided there is a clear procedure for the interviewer to follow
Allows clarification more easily than in group-administered surveys
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

25. Developing a Survey Instrument
Use clear language and explicit instructions
Types and number of questions will depend on the purpose and the type of survey planned
Types of items
Open-ended items
Multiple-choice items
Likert-scale items
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

26. Sample Open-Ended Questions
How do you typically handle interpersonal difficulties with your co-workers?
What are the most important values to instill into today’s children?
If you were president, what issues would you make your top priority?
What situations are particularly stressful for you?
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

27. Sample Multiple-Choice Questions
How frequently do you take a sick day from work?
a) never
b) once or twice a year
c) 3 to 5 times a year
d) 6 to 12 times a year
e) at least once a month
Identify the issue that you believe is most critical to this country’s future.
a) the economy
b) education
c) integrity in government
d) national defense
e) some other issue
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

28. Sample Likert-Scale Questions
Rate each item on the scale shown to indicate your level of agreement:
I believe in the Bill of Rights.
strongly agree agree uncertain disagree strongly disagree
I think that everyone should vote.
Most politicians cannot be trusted.
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

29. Issues in Sampling
Need to clearly define the population and then develop a strategy for adequately sampling from the population
Identify each member of the population
Sample from the comprehensive list
The more representative the sample, the more valid our conclusions from the survey
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

30. Sampling Procedures Nonprobability samples Probability samples
Convenience sample gathered quickly, but with little interest in drawing strong conclusions
Probability samples
Simple random sampling
Every person has an equal chance of being included
Stratified random sampling
Random sampling within clearly defined strata (subdivisions of the population)
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

31. Sample Size Sample size is based on several factors
Costs and time constraints
Degree of precision needed
Larger samples will provide more precise estimates of population parameters
More heterogeneous populations require larger sample sizes
The larger the sample, the more narrow the confidence intervals
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

32. Research Design of Surveys
Cross-sectional designs
Administer the survey once to a sample
Longitudinal designs
Repeatedly survey the same participants
Allows us to see changes in attitudes, experience, and knowledge over time
Difficult to get participants to submit to such long-term research
Graziano & Raulin (2000)

33. Summary Low-constraint research methods provide valuable information
Types of low-constraint research
Naturalistic observation
Case-study research
Surveys
Appropriate caution must be used because of the inherent limitations of these methods
Graziano & Raulin (2000)