1. ACE Personal Trainer Manual 5th Edition
Chapter 10: Resistance Training: Programming and Progressions
Lesson 10.1

2. After completing this session, you will be able to:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this session, you will be able to:
Identify the various benefits of a resistance-training program
List acute and long-term physiological adaptations to resistance training
Discuss factors that influence muscular strength and hypertrophy
Explain the relationship between muscular strength, muscular power, and muscular endurance
Discuss the training variables affecting strength development and program design

3. BENEFITS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING
Strength training is the process of exercising with progressively heavier resistance to stimulate muscle development.
The outcomes and benefits of regular resistance exercise include:
Increased muscle fiber size and contractile strength
Increased tensile strength in tendons and ligaments
Increased bone mineral density
Improved power production and sports performance

4. PHYSICAL CAPACITY
Physical capacity is the ability to perform work or exercise.
Resistance training results in stronger muscles that increase the physical capacity for force production:
Progressive resistance exercise enables an individual to perform a single lift with a heavier weight load (muscular strength) or to perform more repetitions with a submaximal weight load (muscular endurance).
Previously untrained adults may increase their muscle mass and increase their resting metabolic rate (RMR).
Physical capacity decreases dramatically with age in non–strength training adults due to an average 5-pound (2.3-kg) per decade loss of muscle tissue (disuse atrophy). Consequently, men and women who want to maintain their physical capacity and performance abilities must make resistance exercise a regular component of an active lifestyle.

5. PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND BODY COMPOSITION
The human body is composed of two primary components:
Fat weight
Fat-free weight, or lean weight:
Muscle
Bone
Blood
Skin
Organs
Connective tissue
An increase in body fat percentage may have a negative impact on appearance, fitness, and health.
Lean mass is subject to progressive decreases associated with aging and with a lack of training.

6. METABOLIC FUNCTION Muscle disuse atrophy results in a decrease in RMR.
Strength training raises RMR and results in more calories burned on a daily basis:
The microtrauma-repair and muscle-remodeling processes require increased energy for at least 72 hours following a challenging strength-training session.
Strength training increases muscle mass, decreases fat mass, and raises RMR, effectively countering primary degenerative processes of sedentary aging.
The calories used during the strength-training session and in the post-exercise muscle-remodeling period contribute to fat loss and provide associated health benefits.

7. INJURY RISK AND DISEASE PREVENTION
A comprehensive program of resistance exercise may be the most effective means of preventing musculoskeletal injuries and reducing the risk of degenerative diseases:
Shock absorption and balance to help dissipate repetitive landing forces
Reduced risk of overuse injuries that result from strong and weak opposing muscle groups
Increased bone mineral density, which may reduce the risk of osteoporosis
Improved body composition, which reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease
Reduced pain of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis
A decrease in depression in older men and women
Improved functional ability in older adults
Increased mitochondrial content and oxidative capacity of muscle tissue
With respect to diabetes, resistance exercise has been shown to improve insulin response and glucose utilization. With respect to cardiovascular disease, strength training has been demonstrated to lower resting blood pressure, improve blood lipid profiles, enhance vascular condition, and decrease the risk of developing the metabolic syndrome.

8. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO RESISTANCE TRAINING: ACUTE
To perform resistance exercise, several acute physiological responses must take place:
Nerve impulses are transmitted from the central nervous system to activate the appropriate motor units and muscle fibers in the prime mover muscles.
Muscle fibers contract to provide the necessary force.
Muscle fibers use fuel sources such as creatine phosphate and glycogen for anaerobic energy production.
Results in metabolic by-products such as hydrogen ions and lactate
Within the endocrine system:
Cortisol, epinephrine, growth hormone, and testosterone increase during a resistance-training session.
Catabolic hormones – cortisol and epinephrine
Anabolic hormones – growth hormone and testosterone

9. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO RESISTANCE TRAINING: LONG-TERM
Two principal long-term physiological adaptations to progressive resistance exercise:
Increased muscular strength and increased muscle size (hypertrophy)
Muscular strength:
Initially, strength gains are the result of neurological factors (motor learning).
Ongoing resistance exercise results in efficient activation of the motor units involved in the exercise movement:
Motor units that produce the desired movement are facilitated.
Motor units that produce the opposing movement are inhibited.
Resistance exercise causes muscle tissue microtrauma, depending on the intensity and volume of the training.
Following a challenging resistance-training session, muscle tissue remodeling results in growth of muscle fibers coupled with small increases in muscular strength.

10. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO RESISTANCE TRAINING: LONG-TERM
Muscular hypertrophy:
Satellite cells – responsible for building larger and stronger muscle fibers
Strength-trained muscle fibers increase in cross-sectional area as a result of two tissue adaptations:
An increase in the number of myofibrils; referred to as myofibrillar hypertrophy – results in greater muscle contraction force
An increase in the muscle cell sarcoplasm that surrounds the myofibrils; known as sarcoplasmic hypertrophy – results in an increase the cross-sectional area
Transient hypertrophy:
Term denoting the “muscle pump” experienced by many people immediately following resistance training
Transient hypertrophy is caused by fluid accumulation in the spaces between cells (due to muscle contraction) and it quickly diminishes after exercise as the fluid balance between the various tissues and compartments returns to normal.
For most people and for most practical purposes, standard resistance exercise produces both myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic hypertrophy in the trained muscle fibers.
Resistance-training protocols that feature heavy weightloads, low repetitions, and long rests between sets favor myofibrillar hypertrophy,
Resistance-training protocols that emphasize moderate weight loads, moderate repetitions, and short rests between sets favor sarcoplasmic or transient hypertrophy
Research indicates that the muscle-remodeling processes following a challenging session of resistance exercise may continue for 72 hours.
In a well-designed study of training frequency, muscular strength did not reach or exceed baseline levels until 72 hours after a standard workout.

11. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Hormone levels – associated with tissue growth and development:
Growth hormone levels – highest during youth and decrease with advancing age
Testosterone concentrations – also decrease with age
Higher levels are advantageous for increasing muscular strength and size.
Lower levels of both lead to reduced muscle mass and strength in older adults.

12. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Sex – gender influences muscle quantity, not muscle quality
Men typically have greater muscle mass and overall muscular strength than women:
Larger body size
Higher lean weight percentage
More anabolic hormones (testosterone)

13. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Age – advancing age is associated with less muscle mass and lower strength levels, partly due to lower levels of anabolic hormones:
An average strength loss of 10% per decade in adults
It appears that all ages initially respond to progressive resistance exercise and gain muscle at the same rate
The potential for total-body muscle mass diminishes during the older-adult years

14. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Muscle fiber type – two categories of contractile proteins:
Type I muscle fibers (slow-twitch)
Typically smaller with more aerobic capacity
Activated at lower force levels
Type II muscle fibers (fast-twitch)–type IIa and type IIx
Typically larger with more anaerobic capacity
Activated at higher force levels
Endurance and resistance training can create small shifts in fiber composition from type IIx fibers to type IIa fibers.
Anaerobic training causes an adaptation where type IIa fibers change to function more like type IIx fibers.
Both types increase in cross-sectional area with strength training.

15. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Muscle length – perhaps the most important factor for attaining large muscle size is muscle length relative to bone length:
Some people have relatively short muscles with long tendon attachments.
Some people have relatively long muscles with short tendon attachments.
Individuals with relatively long muscles possess a greater potential for muscle development than those with relatively short muscles.

16. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Limb length – affects strength performance, but does not influence muscle hypertrophy:
Shorter limbs provide leverage advantages over longer limbs
Muscle force x Muscle force arm = Resistance force x Resistance force arm
Longer limbs – longer resistance force arms require more muscle force to move a given resistance
Shorter limbs – shorter resistance force arms require less muscle force to move a given resistance

17. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Lever systems in the body
The muscle force arm – the distance from the joint axis of rotation to the muscle-tendon-insertion point
The resistance force arm – the distance from the joint axis of rotation to the resistance application point

18. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND HYPERTROPHY
Tendon insertion point – affects strength performance, but does not influence muscle hypertrophy:
A longer muscle force arm provides a leverage advantage for moving a heavier resistance
An individual with a tendon insertion point farther from the elbow joint axis can curl a heavier dumbbell than an individual with a tendon insertion point closer to the elbow joint

19. MUSCULAR STRENGTH/POWER/ENDURANCE RELATIONSHIPS
One-repetition maximum (1-RM) – the highest resistance that can be moved through the full movement range at a controlled movement speed
Muscular endurance – typically assessed by the number of repetitions that can be performed with a given submaximal resistance
Muscular power – the product of muscular strength and movement speed
An increase in muscular strength is accompanied by an increase in muscular power:
Training with light resistance enables fast movement speed, but results in a low power output.
Training with heavy resistance enables high strength, but requires slow movement speed, and therefore results in a low power output.
Training with medium resistance and moderate-to-fast movement speeds produces the highest power output and is the most effective means for increasing muscular power.
Most people can complete 10 reps with 75% of their 1-RM weight load
If a client’s maximum bench press is 100 pounds (45 kg), he or she can probably perform 10 repetitions with 75 pounds (34 kg) (75% of the 1-RM). If training increases this client’s 1-RM bench press to 120 pounds (54 kg), he or she can most likely complete 10 repetitions with 90 pounds (41 kg) (75% of the new 1-RM). That is, this client’s “relative muscular endurance” maintains the same ratio to his or her maximum strength.
However, when the client’s 1-RM bench press increases to 120 pounds (54 kg), he or she can perform approximately 15 repetitions with 75 pounds (34 kg), because this weight load is now only 62.5% of his or her maximum strength. Therefore, this client’s “absolute muscular endurance” increases as muscular strength increases.

20. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE WEIGHT LOAD AND MUSCULAR POWER

21. TRAINING VARIABLES
Designing effective programs requires consideration of several factors and programming variables:
A needs assessment
Appropriate exercise frequency consistent with the client’s goals
Training experience
Current conditioning level
Necessary recovery periods between sessions
Appropriate exercises and exercise order consistent with program needs and goals, equipment availability, client experience, technique, and conditioning level
The exercise volume and load – sets, repetitions, and intensity
Appropriate rest intervals between sets based on the client’s needs and goals

22. NEEDS ASSESSMENT
A trainer must complete a detailed needs assessment to determine what the appropriate program will entail.
To complete the needs assessment, the trainer should consider the following:
Evaluation of the activity or sport
Movement analysis
Physiological analysis
Injury analysis
Individual assessment
Current conditioning level
Training history and technique
History of injury or fear of injury
Tolerance for discomfort
Movement analysis (What movement patterns, speeds, and muscle involvements are needed?)
Physiological analysis (Which energy systems are utilized? Does the activity require muscular endurance, hypertrophy, strength, or power?)
Injury analysis (What are prevalent injuries associated with participation in this activity or sport?)
Health-related Parameters
Aerobic capacity
Muscular endurance
Muscular strength
Flexibility
Body composition
Skill-related Parameters
Power
Speed
Balance
Agility
Coordination
Reactivity

23. TRAINING FREQUENCY
Training frequency – inversely related to both training volume and training intensity:
Less vigorous exercise sessions:
Produce less muscle microtrauma
Require less time for tissue remodeling
Can be performed more frequently
More vigorous exercise sessions:
Produce more muscle microtrauma
Require more time for tissue remodeling
Must be performed less frequently for optimum results

24. TRAINING FREQUENCY

25. EXERCISE SELECTION AND ORDER
Determining exercise selection and order is a complex process that requires:
Consideration of the individual’s experience and exercise technique
Movement and physiological demands of the activity or sport
Consideration of equipment and time availability
Group exercises based on body area, function, or relevance to the activity:
Primary exercises – multiple muscles from one or more of the larger muscle areas that span two or more joints; generally performed in a linear fashion
Assisted exercises – smaller muscle groups from more isolated areas that span one joint
Grouping specific muscles into a session:
Should reflect the specific needs of the client and availability for training
ACSM recommends targeting each major muscle group 2 or 3 days a week, allowing a minimum of 48 hours of recovery between sessions.
Training twice per week may require the use of circuits that target all the major muscle groups within a session, whereas training with greater frequency allows the trainer flexibility to divide sessions according to body parts or movements.

26. EXERCISE SELECTION AND ORDER
Trainers can select from a variety of methods to enhance muscle hypertrophy or improve muscular endurance, strength, and power:
Performing primary exercises followed by assisted exercises within a targeted area
Multijoint linear exercises, followed by single-joint rotary exercises
Alternating upper- and lower-extremity exercises within or between training sessions
Group pushing and pulling muscles within a session
Alternating pushing and pulling movements or targeting joint agonists and antagonists within a session
Performing supersets or compound sets, before an appropriate rest interval is taken
Trainers should also consider exercise progression relative to the client’s conditioning status and ability to stabilize the entire kinetic chain.
Given the advancements made in technology and equipment design, trainers should avoid making the mistake of prematurely progressing clients to equipment that is too challenging for a client’s current abilities.

27. APPROPRIATE PROGRAM PROGRESSIONS

28. TRAINING VOLUME
Training volume – the cumulative work completed during each resistance-training session
Training volume is calculated in several ways.
Repetition-volume calculation:
Volume = Sets x Repetitions (for either the muscle group or the session)
Load-volume calculation:
Volume = Exercise weight load x Repetitions x Sets (then summing the total for each muscle group or the entire session)
Although training volume is an excellent measure of how much work was performed, it may not be an accurate assessment of how hard a person truly worked.
For example, Mary can complete four leg presses with 90 pounds, eight leg presses with 80 pounds, and 12 leg presses with 70 pounds. Although each set requires a high effort and produces similar levels of muscle fatigue (e.g., no additional repetitions can be performed), the training volume varies considerably.
1 set x 4 repetitions with 90 pounds = 360 pounds
1 set x 8 repetitions with 80 pounds = 640 pounds
1 set x 12 repetitions with 70 pounds = 840 pounds

29. TRAINING VOLUME
Training volume provides a reasonably good indication of the energy used in a workout:
A correlation exists between the total amount of weight lifted and the total number of calories burned
Power lifters – typically lower-volume workouts:
Fewer exercises, repetitions, and sets with heavier weight loads
Focus on improving the muscle’s ability to maximally recruit fibers to generate higher amounts of force
Competitive bodybuilders – higher-volume workouts:
More exercises, repetitions, and sets with moderate weight loads
Focus on increasing the amount of time the muscle spends under tension performing work to stimulate hypertrophy
Training volume be changed periodically for physiological and psychological purposes.
As a client begins a resistance-training program and is in the transition from the preparation to the action stages of behavioral change, the total training volume should be kept relatively low to allow for adaptation and accommodation to the training stress. Another benefit of keeping the training volume low during the initial stages of an exercise program is to allow the client to feel successful after accomplishing the goal of performing a specific volume of training. Training volume can be gradually increased as the client develops adherence to the program, becoming stronger as a result.

30. TRAINING VOLUME BASED ON GOAL

31. TRAINING INTENSITY
Training intensity varies inversely with training volume and can be defined as either:
The percentage of maximum resistance used in an exercise
The effort level achieved during an exercise set
Higher-intensity training sessions require lower exercise volumes.
Higher-volume exercise sessions require lower training intensities.
Most periodization models:
Begin with higher-volume/lower-intensity workouts
Progress to moderate-volume/moderate-intensity workouts
Conclude with lower-volume/higher-intensity workouts
The more important factor for strength development appears to be the training effort.

32. INTENSITY AND ADHERENCE
Progressing intensity too quickly could lead to excessive delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) or injury, providing reasons for a new client to quit the exercise program.
When developing a program for a client new to exercise, consider the following:
Begin with a low level of intensity
Allow the client to physically and psychologically adapt to the training stress.
Gradually progressing the intensity
Help the client experience results while developing long-term adherence to exercise.
DOMS – Delayed onset muscle soreness
A client who is new to resistance training may perceive exercise as painful and uncomfortable due to delayed onset muscles soreness, which can reduce the client’s adherence to regular exercise.

33. TRAINING TEMPO
Research has not identified a particular training tempo that is most effective for increasing muscular strength and size.
Movement speeds of 6 seconds per repetition is commonly recommended for machine (selectorized) training:
Concentric muscle action – one to three seconds
Eccentric muscle action – two to four seconds
The trainer should emphasize performing all exercises through a full range of motion (ROM).
Olympic lifters perform their competitive exercises at fast movement speeds.
Bodybuilders generally train at moderate movement speeds.
Power lifters do their competitive exercises at slow movement speeds.
Controlled movement speeds require a relatively even application of muscle force throughout the entire movement range.
Fast movement speeds require a high level of muscle force to initiate the lift, with momentum mostly responsible for the remainder of the movement.
When momentum is minimized, as is the case with isokinetic resistance equipment, muscle force decreases as movement speed increases. The same effect may be seen with isotonic training, such as free weights and weight stack machines. The heavier the weight load, the longer the time required to complete 10 repetitions of an exercise.
Although other controlled movement speeds may be equally effective for strength development, six-second repetitions represent an excellent introductory training speed for new exercisers.

34. The length of the rest interval is dependent on:
REST INTERVALS
Rest intervals – the recovery periods between successive exercises or between successive sets of the same exercise
The length of the rest interval is dependent on:
The training goal
The client’s conditioning status
The load and amount of work performed
The heavier the load, the longer the rest interval needed to replenish the muscle’s energy pathways.
Competitive Olympic lifters and power lifters typically take longer rest intervals between sets to ensure complete muscle recovery and energy replenishment. The longer recovery periods permit the use of relatively heavy weight loads throughout the training session. Competitive bodybuilders are less concerned about the exercise resistance and more concerned about “pumping up” their muscles. Therefore, they take relatively short rests between sets to keep the blood congested in the prime mover muscles.
Rest intervals are an important component of an exercise program because they allow a client to recover after each particular exercise and maintain a consistent level of energy throughout the workout. When performing a strength-training circuit in which each exercise addresses a different muscle group, the recovery interval has more impact on the cardiovascular system than on the exercise performance.
This format of resistance training, coupled with higher volumes of resistance work that increase metabolism, is becoming more popular with individuals seeking to lose or manage their weight.

35. REST INTERVALS
For general muscular conditioning, 1-minute rest intervals between successive exercise sets are sufficient.
If maximizing muscular strength, take several minutes of rest between sets of the same exercise.
If maximizing muscle size, take 30 to 90 seconds between successive exercise sets.
Shorter rest intervals increase cardiovascular and metabolic responses both during and after the exercise session.
For clients new to resistance training, rest intervals should be long enough to maintain their comfort levels, but not so long that their heart rate and body temperature return to normal resting levels.

36. SUMMARY
Strength-training program designs for muscle hypertrophy, strength, or endurance all require external loads to enhance muscular force production.
Progressive loading will improve motor-unit recruitment and increase muscle potential to generate a maximal force; progressive accumulation of repetitions will train a muscle to generate a lower level of force over an extended period of time.
Program-design variables are applied consistent with the standard application of training for increasing hypertrophy, enhancing endurance, or improving strength.
Exercise selection is dictated by the client’s specific goals and needs; resistance can be applied through a number of different options.
Regardless of the exercise selected or the type of load used, the focus during load training is on increasing the ability of a muscle to generate force against an external resistance.