1. Gender Stratification: She/He – Who Goes First?
Chapter 9
Gender Stratification:
She/He – Who Goes First?
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

2. Sex, Gender, and Stratification
Key Ideas
Gender roles and identities are not biological, but socially constructed
Gender roles vary widely; each society has its own way of assigning tasks in order to meet its needs
Gender roles may change over time
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

3. Sex, Gender, and Stratification
A biological term referring to ascribed physical differences between males and females
A determination made through the application of socially accepted physical criteria
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

4. Sex, Gender, and Stratification
Sex is a major organizing principle in most societies
Sex is a basis for stratification in most societies
Most societies insist on assigning a sex to all infants
Intersexed: persons with ambiguous genitalia, such that sex is difficult to assign
Heteronormativity: expectation that people will be sexually attracted to members of the other sex
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

5. Sex, Gender, and Stratification
Gender: socially constructed notions of masculinity and femininity
Gender identity: how individuals form their identity using gender categories
Gender roles: commonly assigned tasks or expected behaviors linked to an individual’s sex-determined statuses
Transgender: the identity of someone who is challenging or changing the gender they were assigned at birth
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

6. Sex, Gender, and Stratification
Sexuality
Sexuality: how culture shapes the meanings of our experiences with our own bodies and our bodies in relation to others
Like sex and gender, sexuality is socially constructed
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

7. Sex, Gender, Sexuality: The Micro-Level
Through socialization, we learn the gender roles assigned to our sex and established by our culture
Gender expectations are inculcated by many agents of socialization
Failure to comply often results in sanctions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

8. Sex, Gender, Sexuality: The Meso-Level
Institutions: the roles we play in institutions differ by sex, as well as age
Some institutions segregate people by sex and age
Some institutions allow leadership roles to be held only by men
Institutionalized rites of passage, or rituals which mark changes in status, often differ by sex and age
Women’s reduced power in micro-level settings is often related to lack of power in meso-level organizations and institutions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

9. Sex, Gender, Sexuality: The Macro-Level
Institutionalized privilege & disprivilege:
Patterns of action embedded in a social system which provide unrecognized advantages and disadvantages
Contribute to sex inequality at the global/national level that is independent of personal prejudices
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

10. Gender Socialization Micro-Meso Level
Gender socialization: process by which people learn the cultural norms, attitudes, behaviors appropriate to their gender
Proper gender behavior is reinforced and improper behavior is punished through sanctions
Stages in gender socialization:
In infancy & childhood, parents/family play major role
Later, meso-level agents are important:
Corporations
Mass media
Educational systems
Religious beliefs
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

11. Gender Stratification
Meso-Macro Level
Glass ceiling: social forces that keep women from reaching the highest levels of corporate and public responsibility
Sticky floor: social forces that keep the majority of the world’s women stuck in low-paid jobs
Glass escalator: social forces that push men up the organizational hierarchy even if they do not seek to climb it, especially in female-dominated occupations
The workplace itself is gendered
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

12. Gender Stratification
Gendered Organizations and Work
Workplaces have a gender configuration: the ratio of men to women affects work experiences
Some workplaces are supportive of workers’ family responsibilities; others are not
This impacts women more than men; according to dominant gender expectations women must balance work and family needs, while men are seen primarily as workers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

13. Gender Stratification
Institutionalized Gender Discrimination
Institutional discrimination: woven into the social structure and taken for granted
De jure discrimination: deliberate discrimination, often justified by beliefs about women’s inability to carry out certain tasks
De facto discrimination: unequal treatment that is unintended
Side effect discrimination: rests on links between practices in different institutions
Past-in-present discrimination: practices from the past that may no longer be allowed still affect people
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

14. Theories of Gender Stratification
Micro-level theory:
Symbolic interactionism
Physical, biological sex differences act as symbols that differentiate rights and rewards
Gender is socially constructed; it is not intrinsically related to sex
Emphasizes human agency, or ability to influence society
Humans do not just passively adopt gender roles; we actively “do” gender in everyday interaction
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

15. Theories of Gender Stratification
Meso- and macro-level theories:
Structural-functionalism
Each sex has a role to play in society
As societies change, so do roles & relationships
Society: from mechanical to organic solidarity
Gender: from similar to differentiated roles
Different but complementary roles:
Expressive (private sphere) – female
Instrumental (public sphere) – male
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

16. Theories of Gender Stratification
Meso- and macro-level theories:
Conflict theory
Sees males as “haves” (power, wealth), women as “have nots”
By keeping women in subordinate roles, men protect their privileges
Male dominance justified by traditional ideologies
Men will not voluntarily give up their privileged positions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

17. Theories of Gender Stratification
Micro- to Macro-Level
Feminist theory
Patriarchy: a few men dominate all others, including women, children, less powerful men
Patriarchy is primary cause of women’s oppression
Class, race, and gender intersect in a way that privileges some women over others, though most women are still subordinate to most men
Despite intersections, women are a “minority group” subject to stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination
Feminism actively advocates change to the social order to eliminate patriarchy
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

18. Theories of Gender Stratification
Micro- to Macro-Level
Gender, Homosexuality, & Minority Status
Sexuality exhibits a broad range of combinations; societal expectations impose categories
Treatment of homosexuality often determined by the government and dominant religious groups
Gay men and lesbians are often minority groups subject to prejudice and discrimination
Homophobia: intense fear and hatred of homosexuality and homosexuals
Heterosexism: social reinforcement of heterosexuality, marginalization of those who don’t conform
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

19. Costs & Consequences of Gender Stratification
Micro-level:
Psychological & Social consequences
Rigid gender stereotypes are constraining
For women: superwoman image and beauty image can lead to depression and health problems
For men: image of “perfect” male body & unemotional male role can lead to guilt, anxiety, neuroses
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

20. Costs & Consequences of Gender Stratification
Meso- to macro-level:
Societal Costs and Consequences
Stratification has consequences for all social institutions:
Poor educational achievement of female children
Loss of talents, resources of half of the population
Lack of health care impacts women and their children
Social divisiveness can lead to alienation, hostility
In occupations and professions,
Men “take gender privilege with them”
Women take disprivilege, which lowers their positions and wages
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.

21. Changing Gender Stratification & Social Policy
Practices used by other groups may be effective
Non-violent protests, sit-down strikes and walkouts
Mutual support groups
Using the internet to carry the message to others
Boycotts
Building on traditions of community & church activism
Difficulty of ending women’s subjugation: many women agree on the goal, but not the means of achieving it
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.